PRINCIPLES OF UNIT

OPERATIONS
SFP 2102
Mixing
INTRODUCTION
• Mixing (or blending) is a unit operation in which a uniform
mixture is obtained from two or more components, by dispersing
one within the other.
• Hence it is a process which involves manipulating a heterogeneous
physical system, with the intent to make it more homogeneous.
• The larger component is the continuous phase whilst the smaller
component is the dispersed phase.
• This process is generally used in food processing to combine
ingredients to achieve different functional properties or sensory
characteristics.
Reasons for mixing
• to homogenize, suspend, solubilize, and/or disperse various ingredients
in a food product
• to bring about intimate contact between different species in order for a
chemical reaction to occur
• to provide a new property of the mixture which was not present in the
original separate components. An example is a food mixture of a given
component for nutritional purposes.
• to allow heat and/or mass transfer to occur between one or more
streams, components or phases.
• It can be used to improve texture, flavour, appearance, and shelf life.
Proper mixing is critical to ensuring a consistent quality product.
The mixing process

• Ideally, a mixing process begins with the components, grouped

together in some container, but still separate as pure
components.
• Thus, if small samples are taken throughout the container,
almost all samples will consist of one pure component.
• The frequency of occurrence of the components is proportional
to the fractions of these components in the whole container.
• As mixing then proceeds, samples will increasingly contain
more of the components, in proportions approximating to the
overall proportions of the components in the whole container.
• Complete mixing could then be defined as that state in which
all samples are found to contain the components in the same
proportions as in the whole mixture.
• Actually, this state of affairs would only be attained by some
ordered grouping of the components and would be a most
improbable result from any practical mixing process.
• Another approach can then be made, defining the perfect
mixture as one in which the components in samples occur in
proportions whose statistical chance of occurrence is the same
as that of a statistically random dispersion of the original
components.
• Such dispersion represents the best that random mixing
processes can do.
• There are two types of mixing: Solid and liquid mixing
General principles of mixing
• Mixing has been defined as the intermingling of two or more dissimilar
portions of a material, resulting in the attainment of a desired level of
uniformity, either physical or chemical, in the final product.
• Mixing applies to all the common states of matter or solids, liquids and
gasses.
• Each form may mix with itself or the others, generating six basic
theoretical mixing process versions and more, where all three states may
be involved in the mixing process.
• The five most common mixing categories by common state include solid
to solid dispersion (e.g. pigmentation dispersions), solid-liquid mixing,
liquid-gas, and two forms of liquid-liquid mixing, namely mixing of
miscible liquids and mixing of immiscible liquids.
Theory of solid mixing

• In general, materials that are similar in size, shape and

density are able to form a more uniform mixture than are
dissimilar materials.
• During a mixing operation, differences in these
properties also cause unmixing (or separation) of the
component parts.
• In contrast with liquids and viscous pastes it is not
possible to achieve a completely uniform mixture of dry
powders or particulate solids.
Factors affecting mixing

• Particle size and particle size distribution – can affect inter

particulate movement.
• Particle density, elasticity, surface roughness and shape.
• The moisture content, surface characteristics and flow
characteristics of each component
• The tendency of the materials to aggregate
• The efficiency of a particular mixer for those components.
 Mechanisms of solid mixing
• The mixing of particles is often a readily reversible process.
• A mixture of miscible liquids leaving a mixing unit retains or even
improves ‘mixedness’ during the transport process, while a well-mixed
batch of particles can be separated almost completely at a subsequent
process stage.
• Particles change their relative positions in response to movement and the
subsequent rearrangement maybe more random.
• Powder mixing occurs when any particle changes its path of circulation.
• In any particular process one or more of these three basic mechanisms
may be responsible for the course of the operation : convective, diffusive
and shear.
Convective Mixing

• Also known as macro mixing and in this type, mixing is

achieved by mechanical agitation.
• Parts of the bulk material are ‘conveyed’ with respect to each
other by the action of impellers or turbulent gas flow.
• Shearing occurs and may be considerable.
Diffusive Mixing
• Also known as micro mixing.
• The mechanism is assimilated to ‘diffusion’ in reference to the
random movement of molecules.
• Homogeneity is achieved as a result of the random motion of the
particles when the particle is in flow under the effect of gravity or
vibration, without mechanical agitation.
• Occurs when random motion of particles within a powder bed
causes them to change position relative to one another.
• It may also be produced by any form of agitation that results in
inter particulate motion.
Shear Mixing

• In this type of mixing shear force occurs and it reduces the scale
of segregation by thinning of dissimilar layers of solids.
• As a result of forces within the particulate mass, slip planes are set
up.
• When shear occurs between regions of different composition and
parallel to their interface, it reduces the scale of segregation by
thinning the dissimilar layers.
 Quality of mixing, the concept of
‘mixedness’
• The importance of good mixing of powder mixtures in food
processing cannot be overemphasized.
• For instance, uneven distribution of a vitamin in a powder
product intended for infant feeding can have disastrous
consequences or imperfect mixing of salt and leavening
agent in self-rising flour would cause serious customer
dissatisfaction.
• The definition of quantitative criteria for the quality of
mixing in solid particulate products is, therefore, of
considerable importance.
• If a two-component mixture is sampled at the start of mixing (in the
unmixed state), most samples will consist entirely of one of the
components.
• As mixing proceeds, the composition of each sample becomes more
uniform and approaches the average composition of the mixture.
• After a specific time of mixing, a number of small samples at
random are picked up from the mixture and analysed.
• Consider a binary mixture of powders consisting, say, of 10 kg of
salt and 90 kg of sugar. Assume that the mixture is well mixed.
• A sample of the mixture is taken to the laboratory for analysis.
• If the sample consists of a single particle, the result of the analysis
will be either 100% salt or 100% sugar.
• As the sample size is increased, the result of the analysis
approaches the true value of 10% salt, 90% sugar.
• It is clear that the deviation from the true composition
depends on the size of the sample.
• If n samples are analysed, the ‘root mean square’ S of
the deviation of the measurements x from the true mean
composition is:

• Note that the standard deviation is given by the same

expression, with n −1 instead of n in the denominator.
• In statistical quality assurance, S2, known as the
‘variance’, is an important parameter.
• Consider two particulate components P and Q placed in
a mixer.
• Let the proportion of each component, in mass fraction,
be p and q respectively.
• In the beginning, when the components are totally
separated, a sample would consist of either pure P or
pure Q.
• The variance of the totally unmixed system would be:
• Now, let us start the mixer. Assume that perfect mixing has
been reached, i.e. the mixture has been totally ‘randomized’.
• As explained above, even in the case of a perfectly
randomized mixture, the results obtained by analysing a
sample deviate from the true composition and the deviation
depends on the number of particles in the sample.
• Statistics teaches that the variance of samples taken from a
perfectly randomized mixture is:

• Where N is the number of particles in the samples.

• Obviously the variance approaches zero as the sample size is
increased.
• The quality of mixing of a real mixture would be between
that of the totally unmixed (segregated) and that of the
perfectly mixed (random) mixtures.
• A ‘mixing index’ or ‘index of mixedness’ M is defined as
follows:

• Where S2 is the variance of the real mixture. If the samples

are fairly large then the above eqn becomes:

• The mixing index M of a real mixture lies between 0 (totally

segregated) and 1 (totally randomized).
The mixing index

• A number of mixing indices are available to monitor the

extent of mixing and to compare alternative types of
equipment:

• Where σ∞ the standard deviation of a ‘perfectly mixed’

sample, σ0 the standard deviation of a sample at the start of
mixing and σm the standard deviation of a sample taken during
mixing.
• The standard deviation of a sample at the start of mixing, σ 0 is
found using:

• Where V = the average fractional volume or mass of a

component in the mixture.
• The mixing index M1 is used when approximately equal masses
of components are mixed and/or at relatively low mixing rates,
M2 is used when a small quantity of one component is
incorporated into a larger bulk of material and/or at higher
mixing rates, and M3 is used for liquids or solids mixing in a
similar way to M1.
• In practice, all three are examined and the one that is most
suitable for the particular ingredients and type of mixer is
selected.
Equipment used in solid
mixing
• The different equipment involved in solid mixing
involves drum blender, tumbler mixer,
• Paddle mixer, through mixers and vertical screw.
• The mechanism and applications of the mixers are
mentioned below.
The drum blender
• This belongs to the category of diffusive mixers.
• It consists of a horizontal cylinder rotating about its axis. Its mixing action
is essentially diffusive.
• The powder to be mixed is placed inside the drum.
• As the drum rotates, the powder is lifted up, until the angle of repose is
exceeded.
• At that point, the powder falls back on the rest of the bulk and enters a new
cycle of lifting and falling.
• Diffusive mixing takes place during the residence of the powder in air,
while falling. Continuous operation can be made possible by tilting the
drum.
Tumbler mixer

• This belongs to the category of diffusive mixers.

• Tumblers mix free flowing solids that are used for powders
and pastes.
• Tumblers provide "gentle" blending as material tumbles
about a horizontal axis in an enclosed rotating unit.
• Hence this is used when there is a difference in the particle
size and the density.
• Because the particles in a tumbler mixer hit against the walls
and are then deflected to give good mixing.
• They come in many of the different shapes as given
below.
 Barrel mixer
 Cube mixer
 Double cone blender
 Twin – shell mixer – V-Shaped
• In the double-cone tumbler, the powder undergoes cycles
of expansion and compaction as the vessel rotates.
• In the V-shaped tumbler, the powder is subjected to cycles
of division and assembly.
• Convectional elements such as rotating or stationary flow
distortion bars (intensifier bars) are sometimes installed in
both types of mixers.
Paddle mixer

• This is a convective type mixer for particulate solids.

• This is a powerful mixer in which rotating elements mix the
powder both by moving the bed and by fluidizing.
• A liquid component may be sprayed on the powder while mixing.
• Mixers of this type are available both for batch and continuous
operation.
• In the developed version of the machine, the entire mixing
chamber can be rotated upside-down for rapid discharge of the
product, and then rotated back for charging a new batch.
Trough mixers

• This is also a convective type mixer for particulate solids.

• Trough mixers consist of conduct with a U-shaped cross-
section and a longitudinal rotating shaft carrying various
types of mixing elements.
• The agitating element may be a series of paddles or a
screw like a screw conveyor.
• One of the best known of the trough mixers is the ribbon
mixer.
Vertical screw mixers

• A rotating screw located in a cylindrical or cone

shaped vessel.
• The screw may be fixed centrally or may rotate
around the vessel near the wall.
• Quick, efficient and good for mixing a small
quantity into a larger one.
• Good for materials prone to segregation .