Biomechanics II

BME 403
Introduction to Continuum Mechanics

Dr. O.A. Adeleye

 Grading of BME 403
Work How Taken Marks
1. Term Paper Group Project 20 Marks
2. Mid-Semester Test Individual 20 Marks
3. Semester Examination Individual 60 Marks

Recommended Textbooks
1. Fundamentals of Biomechanics, Second Edition, Duane Knudson, Springer, 2007
2. Dynamics of Human Gait, Second Edition, Christopher L. Vanghan, Brian L. Davis,
Jeremy C. O’Connor, 1999
3. Introductory Biomechanics From Cell to Organisms, C. Ross Ethier and Craig A. Simmons,
Cambridge University Press, 2007
4. Biomechanics in Ergonomics, Second Edition, Shrawan Kumar, CRC Press,
Taylor & Francis Group, 2007.
5. Applied Cell and Molecular Biology for Engineers, Gabi Nindl Waite, Lee R. Waite, 2007,
Mc Graw Hill Company.
6. Principles of Continuum Mechanics, J. N. Reddy, 2010, Cambridge University Press
 Course Outline
 Introduction to the basic principles of continuum mechanics of biological tissues and systems.
 Review of statics and strength of materials, continuum mechanics, and free-body diagrams.
 Mechanics of Hard tissues.
 Composition and structure of bone tissue.
 Cellular elements of bone tissue.
 Material behaviour of bone tissue.
 Forces and stresses in human joints, mechanics of the elbow, shoulder, spinal column, hip, knee, ankle
and foot.
 Human locomotion, gait analysis and goniometry, Ergonomics, Foot Pressure measurements –
Pedobarograph.
 Experimental determination of mechanical properties, derivation of constitutive equations.
 Tensions and analysis of residual tensions.
 Exercise Physiology
 Introduction to Continuum Mechanics

 Continuum Mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the mechanical

behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than a discreet.
(discreet means countable, with gaps, 1,2,3,4… while continuous means without
gaps 1.0000001, 1.00000002, 1.00000003, etc something that goes through
minutest point in space or counting…e.g growing in height of human beings,
increase in weight of substances etc.)

 A continuum is any quantity that is continuously distributed or vary continuously

(that is differentiable in space and over time).

 A continuum is something that keeps on going, changing slowly over time, like the
continuum of the four seasons.
 Continuum Mechanics: Intro.

 The subject of mechanics deals with the study of motion and forces in solids, liquids, and
gases and the deformation or flow of these materials.

 In such a study, we make the simplifying assumption, for analytic purposes, that the matter
is distributed continuously, without gaps or empty spaces (i.e., we disregard the molecular
structure of matter). Such a hypothetical continuous matter is termed a continuum.

 In essence, in a continuum all quantities such as the density, displacements, velocities,

stresses, and so on vary continuously so that their spatial derivatives exist and are
continuous.
Continuum Mechanics: Intro.

 Engineers and scientists undertake the study of continuous systems to understand their
behavior under “working conditions,” so that the systems can be designed to function
properly and produced economically.

 For example, if we were to repair or replace a damaged artery in a human body

(Biomechanics), we must understand the function of the original artery and the conditions
that lead to its damage.

 A possible remedy for such diseases is to repair or replace the damaged portion of the
artery. This in turn requires an understanding of the deformation and stresses caused in the
arterial wall by the flow of blood (Biomechanics).

 The understanding is then used to design the vascular prosthesis (i.e., an artificial artery).
 Vectors & Tensors: Definitions
 All quantities appearing in analytical description of the behavior of a solid
material can be classified as scalars and nonscalars.
 Scalars are real numbers (or complex numbers) called magnitude.
Examples are Time, Temperature, length, area, volume and mass.
 Nonscalar quantities need additional information other than specified
magnitude (which is a scalar) such as direction(s). Examples are
Displacement, temperature gradient, force, moment, velocity, acceleration,
etc.
 Nonscalar quantities are often divided into vectors and tensors, although
tensors can be used for all quantities. That is…
 Vectors & Tensors: Definitions

 zeroth-Order tensor is used to mean a scalar

 first-Order tensor is used to mean a vector
 Second-Order tensor is used to mean a tensor
 Some quantities require the specification of magnitude and two directions.
For example, the specification of stress on a given plane requires not only a
force (which is a vector) but also the orientation of the area. Such quantities
are called second-order tensor.
 Material characterization, e.g., elasticity tensor, often requires four (4)
directions (i.e., three mutually perpendicular directions).
 Components of Vectors & Tensors
 Analytical description of the mechanical behavior of a solid requires the
introduction of a coordinate system, and various physical quantities involved
in the description are expressed in terms of measurements made in that system.
 But when tensor notation is used, a particular coordinate system need not
be introduced.
 Consequently, use of vector notation in formulating natural laws leaves them
invariant to coordinate transformation. (they do not change with coordinate
transformation )
 Often, a specific coordinate system is needed to determine the response of a
solid. Then the vector and tensor quantities appearing in the governing
equations are expressed in terms of their components in that coordinate
system.
 Components of Vectors & Tensors
 For example, a vector A in a 3-dimensional space may be expressed in terms of
its components and and basis vectors , and as

 If the basis vectors of a coordinate system are constants, i.e., with fixed
lengths and directions, the coordinate system is called Cartesian Coordinate
System.
 When the Cartesian system is orthogonal (3-direction are mutually
perpendicular), it is called rectangular Cartesian.
 When the basis vectors are unit length, and mutually orthogonal, they are
called orthonormal.
 Components of Vectors & Tensors

 An orthonormal Cartesian basis is denoted by

or
 The Cartesian coordinates are denoted by
or
 The familiar rectangular Cartesian coordinate system is shown in the figure
below.

Figure 1 Rectangular Cartesian Coordinate

 Components of Vectors & Tensors

 A second – order tensor such as the stress tensor , can be expressed in

terms of its rectangular Cartesian system as

 Here we have selected a Cartesian basis to represent the second-order

tensor.
 Summation Convention
13
 We introduce an index notation to facilitate the expression of relationships in
indexed objects.
 Whereas the components of a vector may be three different functions, indexing
helps us to have a compact representation instead of using new symbols for each
function, we simply index and achieve compactness in notation.
 As we deal with higher ranked objects, such notational conveniences become
even more important. We shall often deal with coordinate transformations.
 Summation Convention
14  When an index occurs twice on the same side of any equation, or term
within an equation, it is understood to represent a summation on these
repeated indices the summation being over the integer values specified by
the range.
 Dummy Index
 The repeated index is called a dummy index because it can be replaced by any
other symbol that has not already been used in that expression

 A repeated index is called a summation index,

 The summation convention requires that one must never allow a
summation index to appear more than twice in any given expression.
 Summation Convention
Free Index
 A free index is one that appears in every expression of an equation except
for expressions that contain real numbers (scalars) only. The index i in the
equation

 And k in the equation

are free indices. They are unrepeated indices.

 Summation Convention
16
 Consider transformation equations such as,

 We may write these equations using the summation symbols as:

 Summation Convention
17
 In each of these, we can invoke the Einstein summation convention, and
write that,

 Finally, we observe that can be represented as we have been doing by so

that the three equations can be written more compactly as,
 Summation Convention
18
Please note here that while in each equation is a dummy index, is not dummy
as it occurs once on the left and in each expression on the right. We therefore
cannot arbitrarily alter it on one side without matching that action on the other
side. To do so will alter the equation. Again, if we are clear on the range of , we
may leave it out completely and write,

to represent compactly, the transformation equations above. It should be obvious

there are as many equations as there are free indices.
 Summation Convention
19
If represents the components of a matrix , we can show that,

Where is the product matrix .

To show this, apply summation convention and see that,
for ,
for ,
for ,
for
for ,
for ,
for ,
for ,
for ,
 Summation Convention
20

The above can easily be verified in matrix notation as,

In this same way, we could have also proved that,

 Where is the product matrix . Note the arrangements could sometimes be

counter intuitive.
 Kronecker Delta
21


Kronecker Delta
 Levi Civita Symbol
23

 The Levi-Civita Symbol:

While the above equations might look arbitrary at first, a closer look shows there
is a simple logic to it all. In fact, note that whenever the value of an index is
repeated, the symbol has a value of zero.

Furthermore, we can see that once the indices are an even arrangement
(permutation) of 1,2, and 3, the symbols have the value of 1, When we have an
odd arrangement, the value is -1. Again, we desire to avoid writing twenty seven
equations to express this simple fact.
 Levi Civita Symbol
24
 Hence we use the index notation to define the Levi-Civita symbol as follows:
 Inner product: Vector Space
26
 An Inner-Product Space is a real vector space that defines the scalar product: for
each pair such that, .
 The inner product also called a dot product, is the mapping

from the product space to the real space.

 Magnitude & Direction
27
 Magnitude The norm, length or magnitude of , denoted is defined as the positive
square root of . When , is said to be a unit vector. When , are said to be orthogonal.
 Direction Furthermore, for any two vectors and , the angle between them is defined
as,

 The scalar distance between two vectors and

 Inner product: Scalar Product

 Inner or Dot or Scalar Product

The dot or scalar products of two vectors and denoted by is defined as the product
of the magnitudes of and and the cosine of the angle between them. In symbols,

where is the angle between vectors and. are the magnitude of and respectively

Note that is a scalar and not a vector

Inner or Dot or Scalar Product


30
Cross Product

The area spanned by the vectors and . The unit vector in the direction of
the cross product can be obtained from the quotient, .
 Cross or Vector Product
 The cross or vector product of and is a vector . The magnitude of is
defined as the product of the magnitudes of and and the sine of the
angle between them.

 where is the magnitude of vector , is the magnitude of vector , is the

angle between and and is a unit vector normal or perpendicular to the
plane containing and
 Cross or Vector Product
 Remark/Note
 ⁰ Similarly ,
Therefore, angle between=0
 ⁰ in the direction
Therefore Similarly
,
 vector product in terms of unit vectors. if a and b are given in terms of unit vectors
i.e.
 Triple Products
33

The trilinear mapping,

From the product set to real space is defined by:

Has the following properties:

Vanishes when and are linearly dependent.

It is the volume of the parallelepiped defined by and
 Triple product
34

Parallelepiped defined by and

 Triple product
 Dot and cross multiplication of three vectors , and may produce
meaningful products of the form , and . The following laws are valid:

 in general

 volume of a parallelepiped (see previous slide) having , and as edges,

or the negative of this volume according as , and do or do not form a
right-handed system. If , , , then
 Triple product
 (Associative Law for cross product fails)

 The product is called the scalar triple product or box product and may be
denoted by . The product is called the vector triple product.

 Remark: Given three arbitrary vectors , and are said to be coplanar if and
only
Example 1
Example 1 Cont.
Example 2
Example 2 Cont.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS