Biostatistics - Part 5 - DR - Vennila J

Dr.
Vennia J
M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D
Department of Statistics 1
Points to be discussed
 Sampling
Population and Sample

 Reasons for sampling
 Errors in sampling
 Probability and non probability sampling (comparison)
 Probability Sampling (method, merits and demerits)

 Simple random
 Stratified
 Systematic
 Cluster
 Non Probability and probability sampling (comparison)
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Dr. Vennila J M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D [Statistics], Assistant Professor, MCHP, MAHE, Manipal
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Reasons for sampling
Samples can be studied more quickly than populations
Sampling can save time and money
A study of sample is less expansive than studying an entire population,
because smaller number of items or subjects are examined. This
consideration is especially important in the design of large studies that
requires a length follow-up
A study of an entire population (census) is impossible in need situations.
Sometimes, the process of the study destroys the item being studied.
As knowledge of the population increases, sampling methodology can be
changed.
The sample results are adequate
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Sampling Error
Sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection process as a result of
taking a sample from a population rather than using the whole population.
Sampling error is one of two reasons for the difference between an estimate of a
population parameter and the true, but unknown, value of the population
parameter.
The sampling error for a given sample is unknown but when the sampling is
random, for some estimates (for example, sample mean, sample proportion)
theoretical methods maybe used to measure the extent of the variation caused by
sampling error.”
Sampling error is mainly cause due to the reason that sample not whole
population.
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Non-sampling error
Non-sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection process as a result
of factors other than taking a sample.
Non-sampling errors have the potential to cause bias in polls, surveys or
samples.
There are many different types of non-sampling errors and the names used to
describe them are not consistent.
This may be due to poor sampling method, measurement errors, and behavioral
effect.
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Difference between sampling error and non sampling errors
Items Sampling Errors Non Sampling Errors
Meaning Sampling error is a type of error, An error occurs due to sources other
occurs due to the sample selected than sampling, while conducting
does not perfectly represents the survey activities is known as non
population. sampling error.
Cause Deviation between sample mean Deficiency and analysis of data
and population mean
Type Random Random or Non-random
Occurs Only when sample is selected. Both in sample and census
Sample Possibility of error reduced with It has nothing to do with the sample
size the increase in sample size. size.
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Probability Sampling
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Simple Random Sampling
It is the method of selection of a sample in such a way that each and every number of population
or universe has an equal chance or probability of being included in the sample. Random
sampling can be carried our in two ways:
I. Lottery Method
II. Random Number Method
Lottery Method: Under this method units are selected on the basis of random draws. Firstly each
member or element of the population is assigned a unique number. In the next step these
numbers are written on separate cards which are physically similar in shape, size, color etc. Then
they are placed in a basket and thoroughly mixed. In the last step the slips are taken out
randomly without looking at them. The number of slips drawn is equal to the sample size required.
Lottery method suffers from few drawbacks. The process of writing N number of slips is
cumbersome and shuffling a large number of slips, where population size is very large, is difficult.
Also human bias may enter while choosing the slips. Hence the other alternative i.e. random
numbers can be used.
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Simple Random Sampling
Random Number Tables Method - These consist of columns of numbers which have been randomly prepared. Number of random
tables are available e.g. Fisher and Yates Tables, Tippets random number etc. Listed below is a sequence of two digited random
numbers from Fisher & Yates table:
61, 44, 65, 22, 01, 67, 76, 23, 57, 58, 54, 11, 33, 86, 07, 26, 75, 76, 64, 22, 19, 35, 74, 49, 86, 58, 69, 52, 27, 34, 91, 25, 34, 67,
76, 73, 27, 16, 53, 18, 19, 69, 32, 52, 38, 72, 38, 64, 81, 79 and 38.
The first step involves assigning a unique number to each member of the population e.g. if the population comprises of 20
people then all individuals are numbered from 01 to 20. If we are to collect a sample of 5 units then referring to the random number
tables 5 double digit numbers are chosen. E.g. using the above table the units having the following five numbers will form a
sample: 01, 11, 07, 19 and 16. If the sampling is without replacement and a particular random number repeats itself then it will not
be taken again and the next number that fits our criteria will be chosen.
Thus a simple random sample can be drawn using either of the two procedures. However in practice, it has been seen that
simple random sample involves lots of time and effort and is impractical.
Advantages:
 It is simple, and rapid.
 All members have an equal probability of selection.
Disadvantages:
 It cannot be employed when one wishes to obtain a representative sample from a stratified population.
 It cannot be employed to sample large populations (thousands or more).
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Stratified Random Sampling
In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller groups to
complete the sampling process. The small group is formed based on a few
characteristics in the population. After separating the population into a smaller
group, the statisticians randomly select the sample.
For example, there are three bags (A, B and C), each with different balls. Bag A
has 50 balls, bag B has 100 balls, and bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a
sample of balls from each bag proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A, 10 balls
from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.
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Systematic Random Sampling
In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the
target population by selecting the random selection point and selecting
the other methods after a fixed sample interval. It is calculated by
dividing the total population size by the desired population size.
Example:
Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse
alphabetical order. To select a sample in a systematic sampling method,
we have to choose some 15 students by randomly selecting a starting
number, say 5. From number 5 onwards, will select every 15th person
from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with a sample of some
students.
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Clustered Sampling
In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed from
the population set. The group has similar significatory characteristics. Also, they
have an equal chance of being a part of the sample. This method uses simple
random sampling for the cluster of population.
Example:
An educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost the
number of students. If we want to collect some data regarding facilities and other
things, we can’t travel to every unit to collect the required data. Hence, we can use
random sampling to select three or four branches as clusters.
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Non-Probability Sampling
The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher
selects the sample based on subjective judgment rather than the random
selection.
In this method, not all the members of the population have a chance to participate
in the study.
Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such
as convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental
sampling, snowball sampling.
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Convenience Sampling
In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population
directly because they are conveniently available for the researcher. The samples
are easy to select, and the researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the
entire population.
Example:
In researching customer support services in a particular region, we ask your few
customers to complete a survey on the products after the purchase. This is a
convenient way to collect data. Still, as we only surveyed customers taking the
same product. At the same time, the sample is not representative of all the
customers in that area.
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Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight
variation. The researcher picks a single person or a group of people for
sampling. Then the researcher researches for a period of time to analyze
the result and move to another group if needed.
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Quota Sampling
In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that
involves the individuals to represent the population based on specific
traits or qualities. The researcher chooses the sample subsets that bring
the useful collection of data that generalizes the entire population.
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Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the
researcher’s knowledge. As their knowledge is instrumental in creating
the samples, there are the chances of obtaining highly accurate answers
with a minimum marginal error. It is also known as judgmental sampling
or authoritative sampling.
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Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique.
In this method, the samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each
identified member of a population is asked to find the other sampling
units. Those sampling units also belong to the same targeted population.
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Difference between sampling and non sampling methods
Probability Sampling Methods Non-probability Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling is a sampling Non-probability sampling method is a
technique in which samples taken from a technique in which the researcher chooses
larger population are chosen based on samples based on subjective judgment,
probability theory. preferably random selection.
These are also known as Random These are also called non-random sampling
sampling methods. methods.
These are used for research which is These are used for research which is
conclusive. exploratory.
These involve a long time to get the data. These are easy ways to collect the data
quickly.
There is an underlying hypothesis in The hypothesis is derived later by conducting
probability sampling before the study the research study in the case of non-
starts. Also, the objective of this method probability sampling.
Dr. Vennila J M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D [Statistics], Assistant Professor, MCHP, MAHE, Manipal 22
MCQ
1. Of the following sampling methods, which is a probability
method?
a) Judgement
b) Quota
c) Simple random
d) Convenience
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MCQ
2. Which of the following is not a type of non-probability
sampling?
a) Quota sampling
b) Convenience sampling
c) Snowball sampling
d) Stratified random sampling
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MCQ
3. Determining the sample interval (represented by k), randomly
selecting a number between 1 to k, and including each k th
element in sample are the steps for which form of sampling
a) Simple random sampling
b) Stratified random sampling
c) Cluster sampling
d) Systematic random sampling
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MCQ
4. Which of the following is not a type of probability sampling?
a) Simple random sampling
b) Systematic sampling
c) Snowball sampling
d) Stratified random sampling
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MCQ
5. An investigator wants to conduct a study on orthopedically
handicapped children. The type of sampling to be used would be
a) Accidental
b) Quota
c) Stratified
d) Purposive
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Reference
1.Mahajan BK, Khanal AB. Methods in biostatistics: for medical students and
research workers. India: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers; 2010.
2.Rao PS, Richard J. An Introduction to biostatistics: a manual for students in health
sciences. India: Prentice/Hall of India; 1996.
3.Daniel, W.W., and Cross, C.L. Biostatistics: a foundation for analysis in the health
sciences. Wiley. 018.
4.https://youtu.be/797b5qMnb7s
5.https://www.youtube.com/live/BVa8dFUgrSk?feature=share
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 Reasons for sampling

 Probability and non probability sampling (comparison)

 Probability Sampling (method, merits and demerits)

 Non Probability and probability sampling (comparison)

Type Random Random or Non-random

Occurs Only when sample is selected. Both in sample and census

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