TECHNICAL

TECHNICAL
WRITING
WRITING
Contents:
1.The writing process: general
considerations
2.The writing process: stages
1. Pre-writing
2. Writing
3. Post-writing
3. Technical genres
Defining aspects:
- Content: scientific and technological
matters
- Terminology: words and expressions
proper of the technical register
- Language: focused on the content
rather than on the author, objective tone
- Purpose: transmit information (clarity
and accuracy)
Characteristics:
•Accurate: free from error
•Thorough: quantity of information
•Relevant: closely related to the topic
•Well organized: orderly, logical way
•Clear: well-structured
•Concise: few words
•Correct: spelling, grammar, syntax, and
punctuation
Purpose:
•Explain an experiment
•Present a hypothesis or theory
•Report on past and current research
•Recommend
•Provide information about a device
•Provide information about a procedure
•Instruct
Functions:
•Description: (physical, function, process)
•Definition
•Classification
•Instruction
The Writing Process
Web pages:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl//

………
Pre-writing stage:

1. Audience: Technical experts, executives

and administrators, lay-people, students,
mixed
2. Purpose: recommend, instruct, persuade,
report, inform

3. Style and tone: formal-informal,

personal-impersonal, tentative
Pre-writing stage:

4. Generating ideas: brainstorming/listing,

clustering/mapping, using questions, cubing (analyse,
describe, associate, apply, argue, compare) free writing,
note-taking

5. Outlining: visual outlines (nucleus outline, tree

node)
Pre-writing stage:

Task:

Apply the brainstorming/listing technique

or any other to explore the topic

“Mobile Phone Technology

Nowadays”
 Writing stage:
1. Drafting

- Information schematically ordered in topics and subtopics should be fully developed into sentences and paragraphs

- Information should be organized in a clear and logical way

- Paragraphs and texts need coherence achieved by using linking expressions

Writing stage:
2. Structuring the paragraphs

-Group of sentences expressing a main idea, visual aid for the reader

-Main features to be considered when constructing paragraphs: development, pattern of organization, coherence ( thematic unit by means of repetition of key words, pronouns and synonyms, linking expressions)
Writing stage:
2. Structuring the paragraphs
Since the Audio compact Disk and CD-ROM were introduced in 1982 and 1985
respectively, compact discs (CDs) have become popular media formats, and are used to carry music, data, and multimedia entertainment (AME). When the CD-ROM was developed, it had the ability to store over 650 megabytes (MB) worth of data or music (Disc Manufacturing, Inc.). Today, however, the capacity of 650 MB of storage is too
limited for computer applications. As a consequence, a second-generation disc technology is needed to provide video, multimedia, and databases more quickly and in greater volume. In 1995, the successor to CD, DVD, was announced. Every DVD disc is made of two parts, each of which is 0.6 mm thick; thus, together, the two parts are 1.2mm
thick, which is the thickness of a current CD. Compared to a CD, which has the ability to store 650MB, DVD holds seven times the data. The store capacity of a Single Sided/Single Layer DVD is 4.7 gigabytes (GB) “That’s enough room to store 133 minutes of full-motion video per side” (Normile56). Single Sided/Dual Layer, which is
expected to be the most popular configuration, can hold a special edition DVD video movie or 8.5 GB of computer data (Disc Manufacturing Inc.) Another configuration is Double Sided/Single Layer, which can hold 9.4 GB of computer data or one movie plus 4.7 GB of data. The last one is Double Sided/Dual Layer, which can store 17 GB. This
disc could pack up to four movies (Normile 57). Owing to the data capacity, DVD will be able to provide multiple language and subtitle tracks, which allow users to choose whether to listen to the original movie dialogue, with or without subtitles, or to a dubbed version (Normile 57-58). Moreover, in theory, the viewer would be able to control
how a scene is viewed, choosing from as many as eight different camera angles (Vizard 71).
Writing stage:
2. Structuring the paragraphs
Since the Audio compact Disk and CD-ROM were introduced in 1982 and 1985
respectively, compact discs (CDs) have become popular media formats, and are used to carry music, data, and multimedia entertainment (AME). When the CD-ROM was developed, it had the ability to store over 650 megabytes (MB) worth of data or music (Disc Manufacturing, Inc.). Today, however, the capacity of 650 MB of storage is too
limited for computer applications. As a consequence, a second-generation disc technology is needed to provide video, multimedia, and databases more quickly and in greater volume. In 1995, the successor to CD, DVD, was announced. Every DVD disc is made of two parts, each of which is 0.6 mm thick; thus, together, the two parts are 1.2mm
thick, which is the thickness of a current CD. Compared to a CD, which has the ability to store 650MB, DVD holds seven times the data. The store capacity of a Single Sided/Single Layer DVD is 4.7 gigabytes (GB) “That’s enough room to store 133 minutes of full-motion video per side” (Normile56). Single Sided/Dual Layer, which is
expected to be the most popular configuration, can hold a special edition DVD video movie or 8.5 GB of computer data (Disc Manufacturing Inc.) Another configuration is Double Sided/Single Layer, which can hold 9.4 GB of computer data or one movie plus 4.7 GB of data. The last one is Double Sided/Dual Layer, which can store 17 GB. This
disc could pack up to four movies (Normile 57). Owing to the data capacity, DVD will be able to provide multiple language and subtitle tracks, which allow users to choose whether to listen to the original movie dialogue, with or without subtitles, or to a dubbed version (Normile 57-58). Moreover, in theory, the viewer would be able to control
how a scene is viewed, choosing from as many as eight different camera angles (Vizard 71).

Capacity and limitations of the CD-ROM

Characteristics and configuration of the DVD

Advantages of the DVD

Writing stage:

3. Paragraph patterns:

general specific

Topic
Topic sentence
sentence
Supporting sentences

Supporting sentences

Concluding sentence specific Topic sentence

general
Paragraph Patterns: topic sentence
Computers are being used more and more extensively in
the world today because they are more efficient than
human beings. Their incredible speed makes it possible
to solve complex problems in a small fraction of time.
For example, they are used in business to keep accounts
and in airlines, train lines and bus lines to keep track of
ticket sale. Additionally, their memory capacity allows
them to store huge amounts of information with high
accuracy and reliability. For example, a computer can
store as many as a million items and can put information
into a computer and retrieve it in a millionth of a second.
Developing Paragraph Patterns
Sentence first…, next, then, finally,
connectors after that, afterwards, in
the meantime

Subordinators before, after, when,

whenever, since

before, after, prior to,

Phrase linkers previous to, following

in 1992, last month, two

Time adverbs years ago, in the next few
years
 Developing Paragraph Patterns

first we installed, up to
Chronological

now we have developed, in

Verbs tense choice
the future we will attempt
to

preheat the fuel, …pump

the fuel…. separate water
Use of parallelism
and impurities
Developing Paragraph Patterns
therefore, thus, as a
Sentence connectors
result, as a consequence

Coordinating
conjunctions so, for

since, as, because, form

Subordinators
the reason why, given that

because of, due to, as a

Phrase linkers
result of, the reason for

Causative verbs cause, produce, result in,

give rise to, bring about

Conditional when, where, given, if,

constructions then
Developing Paragraph Patterns
however, yet, still,
Sentence
nevertheless, nontheless,
connectors
on the other hand

Coordinating but, yet

conjunctions

although, even though,

Subordinators though, while, whereas

in spite of, despite,

Phrase linkers (un)like, in contrast, as
opposed to, alike,
Developing Paragraph Patterns
both…and, not only…but
Correlatives also, neither…nor

Comparative & -er.. than, more.. than, as…

superlative as, the most, less/fewer
constructions

e.g. The higher the demand the

higher the production,

Parallel Method X is feasible and

constructions effective whereas method Y is
more difficult and relatively
effective
Product Z is not only reliable
but…
Developing Paragraph Patterns
General to specific/Specific to general
- Generality developed and further specified
in the subsequent supporting sentences.
-Different points presented ,
general conclusion drawn from them
Problem to solution
Situation presented and one or several alternatives
proposed
Listing
Listing by means of indentation, letters and numbers
(formatted-unformatted)
 Developing Paragraph Patterns
1) Most large pumping stations abstract water from surface sources
such as rivers, canals, lakes, etc. whereas groundwater abstraction is
usually provided by smaller pumping units. Comparison & contrast
2) The advent of relatively inexpensive cast iron and of wrought iron and
the rapid spread of railroads in the mid-1800s gave rise to a golden age of
bridge building. Chronological order + cause & effect
3) The hydrologic cycle is a continuous process by which water is transported
from the oceans and after following a series of stages goes back to the sea. Sequential order
4) The use of roller compacted concrete (RCC) has changed the design and
construction of new concrete dams and provided economical and multi-functional
material for the rehabilitation of existing dams. Problem & solution + cause & effect
5) The main components of a rod extensometer are anchors, rods inside the
protective pipe, and a reference head. General to specific + listing
6) This report will compare laptop computers on the basis of the following: (1)features,
(2) performance in hardware tests, and (3) price. Comparison & contrast + listing
7) The main hazards of the process industries arise from the escape of process materials
which may be inherently dangerous (e.g. flammable or toxic) and/or present
Causeat&high
effect
pressure and high or low temperatures.
8) During the nineteenth century experimental hydrology flourished.
Chronological order
Developing Paragraph Patterns
Working as an engineer, imagine you have to write a paragraph that
discusses this topic or any other of you field of studies in terms of
cause-and-effect:
“The Spread of the Internet” (mixed audience in a university, journal,
inform + instruct + persuade)
Writing stage:
4. Providing paragraph coherence:
- intra-paragraph: sentence coherence within an isolated paragraph
- inter-paragraph: coherence between paragraphs, a global perspective
Coherence: integrating sentences in the text by
means of:
- shared knowledge between reader-writer
- unity of information
- cohesive devices, connectives, and other linguistic resources
Writing stage:
Shared knowledge
The writer’s shared knowledge on the topic and
other contextual factors instruct reader to
interpret this as a unified and integrated text
Unity
Presenting and arranging similar and related content
in a logical and orderly way by means of:
- patterns of paragraph development
- parallel structures, presented in the same grammatical form and used consistently
Writing stage:
Coherence devices and other linguistic resources:
-repetition of key words
-use of pronouns and synonyms
-connecting expressions
e.g. A programmable robot is a sequential machine that correlatively executes the instructions in the user’s program and generates orders or control signals read at the entrance of the plant. When the programmable robot detects some change in the signal, it reacts according to the program stored in its memory until it obtains the orders
required to quit. This sequence is executed continuously in order to obtain an updated control of the process. A programmable robot is used to undertake tasks involving some control or transformation process, therefore the application of programmable robots ranges from industrial manufacturing and transformation processes to facility
control.
Writing stage:
Connecting expressions - Punctuation
Sentence Coordinating Subordinating Phrase linkers
connectors conjunctions conjunctions
however, moreover, and, but, so, for, because, although, in addition to,
therefore yet, or, nor provided because to

Strong pause,
A comma, or A comma, or A comma, or
semicolon or
nothing nothing nothing
period
 Video Recording
For the last two decades digital technology has slowly invaded television – most of videotape electronics
is digital. (1)…., the recording process itself remains analog for those basic reasons.
The first is standardization. The recorded signal on tape has to be standardized (2)… a tape recorded on one
machine may play back on a different machine. Program exchanges including the distribution of commercials
rely heavily on standardized videotape formats. (3)……. the VHS format has become the standard for videotape
rentals (4)…. there are better-quality formats around.
A second factor is recording density and cost. Digitized video must cram tape (or any recording media) much more
tightly with data than is the case with analog data. Analog video is typically imposed on a frequency-modulated carrier
requiring 15-16 MHz bandwidth for professional recorders, (5)………….. uncompressed digitized video would need 30-100
MHz per recording head – and there are often many heads stacked in parallel. (6)………………, (7)……………..recording digital
data on tape is little harder than recording analog signals, digital videorecorders and magnetic tape both cost more,
reflecting the higher price and greater number of high-speed large-scale ICs required and the expensiveness of the new,
higher-density magnetic tapes.
A final barrier is the largely analog infraestructure of present-day television studios and production facilities. To
accommodate digital recording fully, most installations should be replaced. (8)…. , digital pieces of equipment like
professional videocassette recorders have become digital islands with analog inputs and outputs in an analog world.
Choose the connecting expression that best fits in the text:

1.a) despite b) therefore c) however d) besides

2.a) so that b) owing to c) as though d) while
3.a) but b) otherwise c) hence d) provided
4.a) and b) even though c) therefore d) because
5.a) since b) despite c) whereas d) so
6.a) in addition b) on the contrary c) conversely d) similarly
7.a) unlike b) as a result c) in spite of d) although
8.a) finally c) and c) however d) as a result
Writing stage:
5. Structuring the essay:

An essay is similar to a paragraph in that

● it deals with a topic

● it develops a main idea through supporting facts (subtopics)

● it has a structure: an introduction, a body and a conclusion

Writing stage:
5. Structuring the essay:
ESSAY
Introduction
general statements,
thesis statement

Body paragraph PARAGRAPH

I. (transition)+ topic sentence
supporting sentences general
(concluding sentence)

II. (transition)+ topic sentence
supporting sentences
(concluding sentence)
III. (transition)+ topic sentence
supporting sentences
supporting sentences
(concluding sentence)
topic sentence
supporting sentences
suporting sentences
supporting sentences
concluding sentences
specific

Conclusion
restatement/summary
of main idea
final comment
 Writing stage:
5. Structuring the essay: sample
ADVANTAGES OF MOBILE PHONES
It is an undeniable fact that mobile phones have shaped modern lifestyle. In the early 90s one
could hardly imagine that those tiny devices would be everywhere in less than a decade. Continuous
technological development has led to new methods of production, and consequently to lower
consumer prices, which together with the marketing done by retailers have created the “mobile
phone hype” as it exists today. However, the focal point that has made mobile phones irresistible to
users of all ages is the appealing advantages they display.
The first and foremost advantage is reachability. With a mobile phone you can communicate worldwide
with anybody anywhere. This possibility has resulted in a high efficiency due to time and cost savings,
as it is possible to fill in travelling time with working hours. In today’s consumer society every second
matters. Therefore, a short response time is crucial for both economic and business decisions. Besides,
travelling safety has greatly improved since, in case of an emergency, it is possible to call for
professional help immediately. One more advantage related to reachability is that now parents as well as
bosses can communicate, or rather, control their children and their personnel respectively 24 hours a day.
The second advantage resolves around the idea that mobile phones have turned into something else than
a pure communication device. The increased bandwidth has made it possible for mobile phones to become
an as new models of mobiles appear. If the so called second generation mobile phones (2G) incorporated
a voice mailbox, the e-mail service and the SMS among others and represented a great step ahead in
mobile communication, the 3G has gone far beyond by offering the possibility of taking pictures,
videorecording and listening to music.
The third and last advantage is related to their technical features. Not only was the size considerably
reduced to fit in one’s hand but also the weight to reach the ideal of 100gr. It was with the discovery
 Writing stage:
5. Structuring the essay: sample
of semiconductors materials and the development of integrated circuits that technical experts were
able to make this substantial reduction, which converted mobile phones into such an easily portable
device. To this, the wireless technology used must be added. The cable connection of fixed phones
was substituted by a little antenna that was integrated into the casing, thus facilitating their
portability. Finally, the logical and easy-to-use distribution of keys and menus has also contributed to
making this device a manageable gadget for everybody.
In conclusion, it is reasonable to say that the great impact that mobile phones are having on our society
is mainly due to their advantages. Mobile phones have made it possible not only to call somebody from
almost anywhere thanks to their wireless technology but also to obtain information from the Internet
or have fun playing games. Yet, in spite of the advantages, we cannot forget that, as with most things,
mobile phones have also some disadvantages that cannot be underestimated.
Writing stage:
5. Structuring the essay: Introduction

-background information and a thesis

statement
- purpose statement : objective of document
-numerical/graphical information (i.e. description of a mechanism)
-anecdote or some surprising information
-definition
 Writing stage:
5. Structuring the essay: Introduction

Determine a possible logical order for the following sentences:

1. In fact computers can do many of the things humans can do but faster and better.
2. They have enormous memories that can store huge amounts of information and do complex
mathematical operations in a fraction of the time a mathematician would take.
3. Let us now see some ways in which computers can help people in their everyday life.
4. They can be used to make reservations, keep accounts, control other machines, and even
translate a text or play music.
5. Since computers were invented their use has never stopped increasing due to their incredible
characteristics.

1. Since computers were invented their use has never stopped increasing due to their incredible
characteristics.
2. They have enormous memories that can store huge amounts of information and do complex
mathematical operations in a fraction of the time a mathematician would take.
3. In fact computers can do many of the things humans can do but faster and better.
4. They can be used to make reservations, keep accounts, control other machines, and even translate
a text or play music.
5. Let us now see some ways in which computers can help people in their everyday life.
Writing stage:
5. Structuring the essay: Body (writer’s)
Background information INTRODUCTION
Thesis statement

Topic sentences
Supporting sentences
PARAGRAPH 1

Topic sentences
Supporting sentences
PARAGRAPH 2

Topic sentences
Supporting sentences
PARAGRAPH 3

Summary or restatement

Personal opinion ( prediction, CONCLUSION

remark, etc..
Writing stage:
5. Structuring the essay: Conclusion (writer’s)

- Recommendation
- Prediction
- Solution
- Personal comment
- Question
- Quotation
Punctuation Marks
Punctuation Marks
Period:
- to mark the end of a sentence
- in abbreviations
- decimals and amounts of money

Comma:
- to connect independent sentences joined by
conjunctions
- to set off most introductory dependent clauses
- to set off adverbial phrases at the beginning of
the sentence
- to set off parenthetic information
- to separate coordinated items in a series
- to separate two or more adjectives if each modifies
the noun alone
- to set off interjections, transitional adverbs and
similar elements representing a break of thought
Punctuation Marks
Colon:
- to signal a greater separation than a
semicolon or comma
- to introduce explanation, expansion, or
elaboration after an independent clause
- to emphasize a sequence in thought
- to introduce a rule or principle, a
formal statement, a quotation or a
speech
- to introduce a list or a series
- to introduce the enumerated items
Punctuation Marks
Semicolon:
- to connect independent or coordinate
clauses
- to connect independent clauses joint by
conjunctive adverbs
- to separate items in a series which has
internal punctuation
- to separate clauses of a long compound
sentence or clauses that are themselves
subdivided by commas
- to separate a quotation mark or a
prenthesis from the following sentence
Punctuation Marks
Dash:
- to denote a sudden break in thought
- to add or insert an explanation, a parenthetical or a
digressive element
- to enumerate or define some element
- to introduce or separate a summarizing clause from
a list

Parentheses:
- to introduce and enclose some parenthetical element
- to distinguish two overlapping parenthetical
elements in combination with dashes
- to enclosed numerals or letters in a listing format
 Punctuation Marks
Brackets:
- to enclose editorial interpolations, corrections,
explanations, translations, and commentary in
quoted material
- to enclose parentheses within parentheses - to
enclose a phonetic transcription

Hyphen:
- to separate numbers not inclusive
- to divide words in noun compounds
- to join co-equal nouns
 Punctuation Marks
Quotation marks:
- to quote phrases or expressions from
another content
- to quote words not used to convey their
meaning
- to give the translation of a foreing word
- to recommend the use of some words
- to write the plural of italicized words
- to use words ironically
- to use words from slang or informal style
- to mark the title of books within larger
works
 Punctuation Marks

Single quotation marks:

- to enclose quotations within quotations
- to enclose a translation immediately
following a foreign word or expression
placed between commas
Writing stage:
6. Incorporating visual aids
 Types of visuals:
 Tables: large amounts of numerical data
organized into rows and columns

 Line graphs: data continuity, direction and trends over

time by means of lines showing upward and downward
movements

 Bar graphs: relative size or volume of discrete variables

as opposed to continuity and trend depicted by line graphs
Writing stage:
6. Incorporating visual aids
 Types of visuals:
 Pie charts: portions which total 100 percent, comparison for
dissimilar magnitudes and sections to another or whole as
well as and show gross differences

 Line drawings: models and objects of science and engineering

focussing on physical appearance (parts, shapes, function or
performance)

 Photographs: effective and truthful reproduction of text

descriptions (external appearance of objects)

 Others: icons, schematics, flowcharts and pictures or cartoons

Writing stage:
6. Incorporating visual aids

 Design of visual elements

- plan a relevant and helpful visual
- do not distort data (inaccurate information
or a poor display)
- design a clear visual aid independent from the
text to be read by itself
Post-Writing stage:
1. Revising content: checklist

does the title clearly announces the content?

 is the content adjusted to the intended audience?
 do supporting or secondary ideas stem form a main one?
 is central information included and given predominance?
 is the amount of detail adequate?
Post-Writing stage:
1. Revising content: checklist

 are more important ideas proportionally longer than less important ones?
is the same information repeated in different sections?
 is the use of topic sentences adequate?  are all paragraphs related to the main topic?
 does the conclusion follows logically?
Post-Writing stage:
2. Revising organization: checklist

are the different parts of the document clearly and logically organized?
 have organizational patterns been consistently used?
 are marking techniques correctly used?
 are titles and subtitles appropriate?  is the hierarchical relationship of information clearly expressed?
Post-Writing stage:
2. Revising organization: checklist

do paragraphs have sufficient connecting

expressions to make them coherent?
 have transitional signals been adequately included to help in paragraph transition?
 are the introduction and conclusion identified as complete and distinctive sections?
Post-Writing stage:
3. Checking for grammatical accuracy

4. Editing for style:

 check for sentence length and load
 control the use of passive voice
 choose adequate vocabulary:
- appropriate use of jargon, sub- technical and general vocabulary,
- control of redundant and wordy expressions,
- avoid nominalizations and control the use of propositional phrases
- avoid sexist language
Post-Writing stage:
5. Proofreading and peer review: checklist
 is the topic or main idea of the paragrph clear ?
 can you identify any topic sentence?
 are all sentences related to the topic sentence? if not, which sentences are off topic?
 are supporting ideas included? is the amount of detail adequate?
 does the paragraph display a consistent
pattern of organization? are ideas logically and clearly organized?
Post-Writing stage:
5. Proofreading and peer review: checklist
 are the sentences properly connected?
 is the vocabulary used adjusted to the intended audience?
 is there any sentences whose meaning is not clearly expressed?
 what are the main grammatical, stylistic and spelling mistakes?
 what do you think are the strengths and weaknesses of this paragraph? how would you improve these weaknesses?
Abstracts
Abstracts
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/656/1/

http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/abstract/index.cfm
Purpose:
Because on-line search databases typically contain only abstracts, it is vital to write a
complete but concise description of your work to entice potential readers into
obtaining a copy of the full paper
 Sections:
 motivation/purpose: importance of the study, research, the difficulty of the area, and the impact it might have if
successful
 problem statement/scope: What problem are to be solved? What is the scope of the study, research, work (a generalized
approach, or for a specific situation)
 Sections:
 method/procedure/approach:
- How to solve it or make progress on the problem, i.e. simulation, analytic models, prototype construction, or analysis of field data for an actual product.
- What the extent of the study is
- What important variables to control, ignore, or measure
 Sections:
 results/findings/product: What's the answer? Specifically conclude that something is so many percent faster, cheaper, smaller, or otherwise better than
something else. As a result of completing the above procedure, state what has been learnt, invented of created
recommendations/conclusions/
implications: What the implications of your findings are especially for the problem/gap identified in step 1, and whether the results are general, potentially generalizable,
or specific to a particular case
Types:
 informative abstracts:
- specify the contents of reports
- include purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions,
and recommendations
- highlight essential points
- are short - from a paragraph to a page or two,
depending upon the length of the report
- allow readers to decide whether they want to read the
report
 Types:
 descriptive abstracts:

- inform what the report contains

- include purpose, methods, scope, but NOT results,
conclusions, and recommendations
- are always very short - usually under 100 words
- introduce subject to readers, who must then read the report to learn study results
 Some tips on it:
 abstract must be a fully self-contained, capsule description of the paper
 meet the word count limitation
 any major restrictions or limitations on the results should be stated, if only by using "weasel-words" such as "might", "could", "may", and "seem".
 think of a half-dozen search phrases and keywords that people looking for your study might use. Be sure that those exact phrases appear in your abstract
 Some tips on it:
 usually the context of a paper is set by the publication it appears in (for example, IEEE Computer magazine's ). But, if it appears in a
somewhat un-traditional venue, be sure to include in the problem statement the domain or topic area that it is really applicable to
 some publications request "keywords“ to facilitate keyword index searches or to assign papers to review committees or editors
 writing an efficient abstract is hard work, but it worths doing for the impact on the audience
Letter
Letter
Writing
Writing
 1. Letter Writing Process:
1. 1Three-step process
to communicate effectively:
Prewriting:
a) Purpose
b) Audience
c) Topic
d) Response/action
 1. Letter Writing Process:
1. 1Three-step process
to communicate effectively:
Prewriting:
a) Purpose
b) Audience
c) Topic
d) Response/action
1. Letter Writing Process:
1.2. Writing (draft)
1.3. Revising
1.4. Final letter
 2. Organizing the letter:
2.1 Parts of the letter
2.1.1 Regular parts:
Personalized letter
head/heading
Dateline
Inside address
Salutation
Body: opening, middle, closing
Complimentary close
Signature
 Enquiries
● Give details of your own firm (if any)/ Introduce
yourself

● Askfor information. Be specific and state exactly

what you want
● Be direct, yet still polite
● Closewith a simple “Thank you” or
“Look forward to hearing from you”
Enquiries
 Replies
●Indicate the sort of firm/person you are: aware,
conscientious and efficient

● Make sure not to leave out information

● Assure a positive recipient’s reaction

Replies
 Complaints
● Make
Ma sure you have got your facts right

● Present all the relevant information

● Make any suggestion that might help put the
matter right
● Nevermake the complaint personal. Use
impersonal tone
Complaints
 Adjustments
● Mention you get your time to investigate the
complaint

● Explain the mistake, if any

● Offer to solve the problem

● Reject a complaint if not your fault

● Close and apologize if ever needed

Adjustments
 Memorandums
Layout: to, whom, subject, date

Content:
title
opening paragraph
information proper
actions to be taken
Memorandums
 Application Letters
Some tips on it:
● Capture the reader’s attention: Use a
creative approach
● Start with a summary of your qualifications
● Mention the person’s name you learned of
the vacancy through
● Support your case: highlight aspects of your
educational background related to the job
 Application Letters
● Show your interest in that particular firm,
knowledge of the company business and
activities
● To conclude, tell the reader the actions you
want taken
Application Letters
Remember:

● The purpose of the application letter is to

convince the employer you are the best
candidate
Application
Letter
Critical
Critical
Review
Review
1. What is a critical review ?
● It is an analysis and evaluation of a book,
article or other medium. It is a formal discussion
of the contents, implications, and quality of an
academic or professional text.

● It involves reading the selected text in detail

as well as other related texts to present a fair
and reasonable evaluation of the selected text.
2. Steps to writing a critical
review Reading:
Skim the whole text to determine the overall thesis, structure
and methodology.

Read critically. It is not enough to simply understand what the

author is saying. Examine how the article is structured, the types
of reasons or evidence used to support the conclusions, and
whether the author is reliant on underlying assumptions or
theoretical frameworks. Take copious notes that reflect what
the text means AND what you think about it.

•Analyze. Examine all elements of the text—the structure, the

methods, the reasons and evidence, the conclusions, and,
especially, the logical connections between all of them.
2. Steps to writing a critical
review
Reading:

The types of questions asked will vary

depending on the discipline in which you are
writing, but the following samples will provide
a good starting point:
2. Steps to writing a critical
review
IDENTIFY ABOUT THE NEXT ELEMENTS :

Introduction Is the problem clearly identified?

Is a rationale given for the research?
Is the literature up to date?
Is the literature relevant to the research?
Does the literature present a balanced view?
Does the literature identify a need for the
research proposed?
Are there any gaps in the topics of the
literature reviewed?
2. Steps to writing a critical
review
IDENTIFY ABOUT THE NEXT ELEMENTS :

Structure What type of text is it? (For example: Is

it a primary source or secondary source?
Is it original research or a comment on
original research?)
What are the different sections and how
do they fit together?
Are any of the sections particularly
effective (or ineffective)?
2. Steps to writing a critical
review
IDENTIFY ABOUT THE NEXT ELEMENTS :

Methodology Is the research quantitative or

qualitative?
Does the methodology have any
weaknesses?
How does the design of the study
address the hypothesis?
2. Steps to writing a critical
review
IDENTIFY ABOUT THE NEXT ELEMENTS :
Reasons/ What sources does the author use
Evidence (interviews, peer-reviewed journals,
government reports, journal entries,
newspaper accounts, etc.)?
What types of reasoning are employed
(inductive, deductive, abductive)?
What type of evidence is provided
(empirical, statistical, logical, etc.)?
Are there any gaps in the evidence (or
reasoning)?
2. Steps to writing a critical
review
IDENTIFY ABOUT THE NEXT ELEMENTS :
Conclusions Does the data adequately support the
conclusion drawn by the researcher(s)?
Are other interpretations plausible?
Are the conclusions dependent on a
particular theoretical formulation?
What does the work contribute to the
field?
2. Steps to writing a critical
review
IDENTIFY ABOUT THE NEXT ELEMENTS :
Logic What assumptions does the author make?
Does the author account for all of the
data, or are portions left out?
What alternative perspectives remain
unconsidered?
Are there any logical flaws in the
construction of the argument?
 2. Steps to writing a critical
review Writing:

Formulate a thesis based on your overall evaluation. A strong thesis will

acknowledge both strengths and limitations.

Ensure that your thesis answers the assignment. If you are asked to
write a review of a single text, with no outside sources, then your essay
should focus strictly on the material in the text and your analysis and
evaluation of it. If you are asked to write about more than one work, or
to draw connections between an article or book and the course material,
then your review should address these concerns.

Choose a structure that will best allow you to support your thesis
within the required page constraints.
2. Steps to writing a critical
review Writing:
Two common structures used for critical reviews:
Example 1 (short assign.) Example 2 (longer assign.)
1. Introduction (subject & 1. Introduction (with thesis)
research of author) Point 1: Explanation and
2. Overview of the text (1 or 2 evaluation
paragraphs of each section of Point 2: Explanation and
the text) evaluation
3. Evaluation of the text Point 3: Explanation and
(strengths & weaknesses) evaluation
Point 1 (continue elaborating as many
Point 2 points as necessary)
Point 3 1. Conclusion
Point 4 ...(continue as
necessary)
4. Conclusion
2. Steps to writing a critical
review Writing:
Synthesize the information as much as
possible
Final draft

 You should point out the strengths of the study to show you are aware of their
importance, as in:
‘These results are consistent with the aims of the research...’
‘The findings are clearly presented using diagrams and a graph...’
‘The discussion consistently relates the key findings to
research discussed earlier...’

 When you identify weaknesses, you should use a cautious, objective style. You
can use such phrases as:
‘This sample seems fairly small in view of...’
‘It might have been helpful to provide more details of...’
‘There is no explanation for the absence of any literature after 2003. It would
have been useful to know why this was the case.’