Dasar-Dasar Termed 1

INTRODUCTION:
NURS 1103 or HLSC 2613

Clinical Data &
Medical Terminology
Main Objective:
Learn Medical Terminology
 New students to Medical
Terminology often bewildered
by strange spelling and
pronunciation.
 Approximately 75% of Medical

Terms are based on either
Greek or Latin
Course Description
 A study of physiological systems approach to
provide principles of medical word building.
Provides medical vocabulary including
anatomy, physiology, systems, diagnostic
testing and pharmacology. This course is
appropriate for health care administration,
health science students such as pharmacy,
nursing, dental hygiene, paramedics, and
physical therapy assisting; as well as court
reporting and medical transcriptionist
students.
Course Objectives
 Apply basic principles of medical word building
AND Correctly pronounce medical terms.
 Define common medical terms.
 Relate common medical terms to human anatomy
and physiology; common disease states,
pharmacological categories,
PHARMACOTHERAPI and diagnostic tests.
 Identify the medical terminology in medical record
reports.
 Interpretation the data laboratory
11 Lessons
 1. Basic Elements of a Medical Word;

Suffixes: Surgical, Diagnostic, etc;
prefixes AND Suffixes: Adjective,
Noun, Diminutive,
 2. Body Structure and
Integumentary System
 3. Gastrointestinal System
Lessons, continued
 4. Respiratory System
 5. Cardiovascular System
 6. Blood, Lymph, and Immune Systems
 7. Musculoskeletal System
 8. Genitourinary System and Female
Reproductive System
 9. Endocrine System
Lessons, continued
 10. Nervous System

 11. Special Senses
Chapter 1
Basic Elements of Medical Word
Medical Dictionary Use
Look Up Unfamiliar Terms

Concepts of Medical Terminology
 Special vocabulary used by health care

professionals for effective and accurate
communication
 Based on Latin and Greek words
 Consistent and uniform throughout the
world
Word Parts
 Root
– Fundamental unit of each medical word
– Establishes basic meaning of word
– Part to which prefixes and suffixes are
added
Word Parts (cont’d)
 Suffix
– Short word part or parts added to the end
of a word
– Modifies the meaning of the root
– Indicated by a dash before the suffix (-itis)
 Prefix
– Short word part added before a root
– Modifies the meaning of the root
– Followed by a dash (pre-)
 Begin with “learn”

– Learn + -er = one who learns
– Re + learn = to learn again
 Greek word for heart is kardia
– Forms word root cardi
 Latin word for lung is pulmo
– Forms word root pulm
Combining Forms (cont’d)
Combining Forms
 Insert an ‘o’ before a suffix beginning

with a consonant when added to a root
– -logy = “study of”
– Neur = “nerve or nervous system”
 Neur + o + logy = neurology (study of
the nervous system)
 Roots shown with a combining vowel

are called combining forms
– Vowels added after a slash
– Called roots
– Neur/o
 Combining vowel omitted if suffix
begins with a vowel
 Neur + it is = neuritis (inflammation of a nerve)
Word Derivations
 Most word parts derived from Greek

(G) and Latin (L)
– Muscle is Latin for ‘mouse’
– Coccyx named for the cuckoo’s bill
Pronunciation
 Use phonetic pronunciations provided

 Repeat words aloud
 Pronunciations may change when parts
are combined
Pronunciation (con’t)
 Vowels with no pronunciation marks
get short pronunciation
– ‘a’ as in hat
 Short line over vowel gives it long
pronunciation
– ‘a’ as in say
 Accented syllable indicated with capital
letters
Soft and Hard c and g
 Soft c, as in racer = (RA-ser)

 Hard c, as in candy = (KAN-de)
 Soft g, as in page, written as j = (paj)

 Hard g, as in grow = (gro)
Silent Letters and Unusual
Pronunciations
 Gnathic = (NATH-ic)
– Pertaining to the jaw
 Apnea = (AP-ne-a)
– Cessation of breath
 Nephroptosis = (nef-rop-TO-sis)
– Dropping of the kidney
Symbols
 Used as shorthand in case histories

 ® = right
  = increase
Abbreviations
 Can save time

 May cause confusion
 Acronym = abbreviation formed from
first letter of each word in a phrase
– ASAP = as soon as possible
Words Ending in x
 Change x to c or g when adding a suffix

– Pharynx (throat) becomes pharyngeal (fa-
RIN-je-al) (pertaining to the throat)
– Thorax (chest) becomes thoracotomy (thor-a-
KOT-o-me) (an incision into the chest)
Suffixes beginning with rh
 Double the r in suffixes beginning with

rh
– Hem/o (blood) + -rhage (bursting forth) =
hemorrhage (a bursting forth of blood)
– Men/o (menses) + -rhea (flow, discharge)
= menorrhea (menstrual flow)
Word Roots (WR)
 Usually derived form Greek or Latin

 Frequently indicates a body part
 Most medical terms have one or more
word roots
Examples of Word Roods
Greek Word Word Root
Kardia (heart) Cardi
Gaster (stomach) Gastr
Hepar (liver) Hepat
Nephros (kidney) Nephr
Osteon (bone) oste

Combining Forms (CF)
 Combining Form (CF) is a Word Root

(WR) plus a vowel, usually an “o”
 Usually indicates a body part
Combining Forms Examples
 Cardi/ + o = cardi/o heart

 gastr/ + o = gastr/o stomach
 hepat/ + o = hepat/o liver
 nephr/ + o = nephr/o kidney
 oste/ + o = oste/o bone
Suffixes
 Word Ending
 Suffix usually indicates a procedure,
condition, disease, or part of speech
 Usually derived from Greek or Latin
Examples of Suffix
 Arthr/o -centesis Arthrocentesis
joint puncture puncture of a joint
 throac/o -tomy Thoracotomy

chest incision incision of the chest
 gastr/o -megaly Gastromegaly

stomach enlargement enlargement of the
stomach
Prefixes
 Word element located at the beginning

of a word
 Changes the meaning of the word
 Usually indicates a number, time,
position, direction, color, or sense of
negation
Examples of Prefix
 A- mast -ia
without breast condition
 hyper- therm -ia

excessive heat condition
 intra- muscul -ar

in muscle relating to
Basic Rule One
 A WR (word root) is used before a

suffix that begins with a vowel.
Scler/ + osis = sclerosis
Basic Rule Two
 A combining vowel is used to link a

WR to a suffix that begins with a
consonant and to link a WR to another
WR to form a compound word
colon/o + scope = colonscope
osteo/ o/ chondr/ itis =
osteochondritis
Defining Medical Words
 First, define the suffix or ending

 Second, define the prefix, or beginning
 Third, define the middle
Pronunciation Guidelines
 Ae and oe
 c and g
 e and es
 ch
 I
 pn
 ps
Prefixes
Medical Terminology
Student Objectives
 Explain the use of prefixes in medical

terminology.
 Explain how a prefix changes the
meaning of a word.
 Identify prefixes of position, number,
and measurement, negation, and
direction.
Prefixes
 Prefix = short word part added before a

word root to modify the meaning
– Uni- (one) + lateral = unilateral (affecting or
involving one side)
– Contra- (against) + lateral = contralateral
(opposite side)
Prefixes for Numbers
 Prim/i- = first
– primitive (occurring first in time)
 Bi- = two, twice
– bicuspid (a tooth with two points)
 Tetra- = four
– tetrahedron (a figure with four surfaces)
Prefixes for Colors
 Cyan/o- = blue
– cyanosis (bluish discoloration of the skin
due to lack of oxygen)
 Leuk/o- = white, colorless
– leukoplakia (white patches in the mouth)
 Xanth/o- = yellow
– xanthodermia (yellow discoloration of the
skin)
Negative Prefixes
 A-, an- = not; without

– aseptic (free of infectious organisms)
 Dis- = absence, removal, separation
– dissect (to separate tissues for anatomical
study)
 Non- = not
– noninfectious (not able to spread disease)
Prefixes for Direction
 Ad- = toward; near

– adhere (to attach or stick together)
 Per- = through
– percutaneous (through the skin)
 Trans- = through
– transfusion (introduction of blood or blood
components into the blood stream)
Prefixes for Degree
 Hyper- = over, excess, abnormally high

– hyperventilation (excess breathing)
 Hypo- = under; below
– hypoxia (decreased oxygen in the tissues)
 Super- = above, excess
– supernumerary (in excess number)
Prefixes for Size and Comparison
 Iso- = equal, same
– isograft (graft between two genetically
identical individuals)
 Micro- = small
– microscopic (extremely small; visible only
through a microscope)
 Re- = again; back
– regurgitation (backward or return flow)
Prefixes for Time and/or Position
 Ante- = before
– antenatal (before birth)
 Pro- = before, in front of
– prodrome (symptom that precedes a
disease)
 Post- = after, behind
– postmenopausal (after menopause)
Prefixes for Position
 Ec-, ecto- = out; outside

– excise (to cut out)
 End/o = in; within
– endoscope (device for viewing the inside of
a cavity or organ)
 Mes/o- = middle
– mesencephalon (midbrain)
Prefixes of Position
 Ante- antepartum, antecubital

 pre- preoperative
 pro- prootic
 epi epidermis, epidural,

epinephrine
 hypo- hypodermic,
hypoallergenic
 infra- infrapubic
 sub- subcutaneous, submarine
 inter- intercostal, internet
 medi- medial, median
 meso- mesoderm
 post- postnatal
 retro- retroperitoneal
Prefixes of Number and
Measurement
 Bi- bilateral
 dipl- diplopia
 diplo diplococci
 hemi- hemiplegia
 semi- semicircular
 hyper- hyperglycemia
 macro- large
Measurement
 Micro- microscope
 mono- mononuclear
 uni- unilateral
 multi- multipara
Measurement
 Poly- polyphobia, polymer
 primi- primigravida
 quadri- quadriplegia
 tri- triceps
Prefixes of Negation
 A- asymptomatic
 an- anesthesia
 im- impotency
 in- insane, insensitive
Prefixes of Direction
 Ab- abnormal
 ad- adduction, addition
 circum- circumoral, circumference
 peri- periosteitis, perimeter
 ec- ectopia
 ex- excise
 Dia- diarrhea
 trans- transfusion
 ecto- ectoderm
 exo- exotropia
 extra- extraocular
 endo- endocardium
 intra- intradermal
 Para- paranasal
 super- supersensitive
 supra- suprarenal
 anti- antibacterial
 contra- contraception
 brady- slow
 dys- dyspepsia
 Eu- eupnea
 hetero- different
 homo- homosexual
 mal- malnutrition
 pan- panhysterectomy, panacea
 pseudo- pseudoplegia
 syn- synarthrosis, synthesis
 tachy- tachypnea
Suffixes: Adjective, Noun,
Diminutive, Singular, Plural
Medical Terminology
Chapter 3
Suffixes
 Suffix = word ending that modifies a

root
 May indicate a noun or adjective
 Often determines how word begins
– Myel/o (bone marrow) + -oid = meyloid (like
or pertaining to bone marrow)
– Myel/o + -oma = myeloma (tumor of the bone
marrow)
Adjective Suffixes
 Adjective endings meaning “pertaining

to” or “resembling” include:
– -ac as in cardiac
– -form as in muciform
– -ory as in respiratory
 No rules for which ending to use with a
given noun
Forming Plurals
 Special plural forms

– Words ending in –a carry plural ending –
ae:
 Gingiva vs. gingivae
– Words ending in –is carry plural ending –
es:
 Diagnosis vs. diagnoses
Some Exceptions to the Rules
 Plural of virus is viruses

 Plural of serums is sera
 Plural of carcinoma is carcinomata
Adjective Suffixes
 -ac cardi/ac
 -al neur/al
 -ar muscul/ar
 -ary saliv/ary
 -eal mening/eal
Noun Suffixes
 -ia pneumonia
 -ism condition alcoholism
 -y urologist
 -iatrics,
-iatry treatment, pediatrics
medicine podiatry
 -ist specialist urologist

Diminutive Suffixes
 -icle particle
 -ole arteriole
 -ula macula
 -ule venule
Plural Suffixes
 pleura pleurae
 thorax thoraces
 lumen lumina
 diagnosis diagnoses
 appendix appendices
Plural Suffixes
 ganglion ganglia
 bacteriumbacteria
 bronchus bronchi
 deformity deformities
 carcinoma carcinomata
Medical terminology
of
Circulation: The
Cardiovascular and
Lymphatic Systems
2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Cardiovascular System
 Cardiovascular system
– Consists of heart and blood vessels
– Encompasses blood circulation
– Delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells
– Carries away waste products
 Lymphatic system
– Drains fluid and proteins from tissues,
returns them to bloodstream

Cardiovascular System

The Heart
 Located between lungs

 Myocardium = thick muscle layer
 Endocardium = inside lining
 Epicardium = Outside lining
 Pericardium = surrounding fibrous sac

Heart (cont’d)
 Atrium
– Upper receiving chambers
 Ventricle
– Lower pumping chambers
 Pulmonary circuit (right side to lungs)
 Systemic circuit (left side to rest of body)
 Chambers separated by septum (walls)

Illustrated Heart

Blood Flow Through the Heart
 Right atrium receives blood from body

 Enters right ventricle and is pumped to lungs
 Oxygenated blood returns to left atrium
 Enters left ventricle and is pumped to rest of
body
 One-way valves force blood flow forward
 Heart sounds produced when valves close
The Heartbeat
 Systole = contraction
 Diastole = relaxation
 Heart beats start with both atria contracting
 Ventricles contract
 Wave of increased pressure is pulse
 Contractions are stimulated by electrical
impulse
Blood Pressure
 Force of blood exerted against wall of blood

vessel
 Measured by sphygmomanometer
 Measured as both systolic and diastolic

The Vascular System
 Arteries and arterioles
– Carry blood away from heart
 Capillaries
– Smallest vessels
– Where exchange between blood and tissues
happens
 Veins and venules
– Carry blood back to heart
Conduction System of the Heart

Principal Arteries

Principal Veins

The Lymphatic System
 Role in circulation: return excess fluid

and proteins from tissues back to
bloodstream
 Fluid known as lymph
 Lower part and upper left side of body
drains into thoracic duct
 Upper right side of body drains into
right lymphatic duct
The Lymphatic System (con’t)
 Other roles:
– Absorb digested fats
– Protect body from impurities, microorganisms
– Assist with immunity

Clinical data, sign and symptom
of cardiovascular system
 Objective/ sign: hyper-hypotension,
syok, udema, aritmia, bradikardia,
takikardia,
 Subjective /symptom: palpitation, chest
pain, head ache
Clinical Aspects of the
Circulatory System
 Atherosclerosis
– Accumulation of fatty deposits within artery
 Risk factors:
– High levels of lipoproteins (especially LDL’s)
– Smoking
– High blood pressure
– Poor diet
– Inactivity
– Stress
– Family history
Thrombosis and Embolism
 Definitions:
– Thrombosis = formation of blood clot
– Thrombus = blood clot
– Embolism = blockage of blood vessel
– Embolus = blockage mass

Thrombosis and Embolism (cont’d)
 Blockage is usually blood clot

 Blockage can also be air, fat, bacteria, or
other solid materials
 Stroke = blockage in a cerebral vessel

Aneurysm
 Weakened arterial wall ballooning out

 Caused by:
– Atherosclerosis
– Malformation
– Injury

Hypertension
 Commonly known as high blood

pressure
 Contributing factor in many conditions
 Defined as systolic > 140, diastolic > 90
 Causes left ventricle to enlarge
 First defense: diet and life habits

Heart Diseases
 Coronary artery disease

– Results from atherosclerosis
– Early sign is angina pectoris (chest pain)
– Diagnosed by:
 ECG
 Stress tests
 Coronary angiography
 Echocardiography

Heart Diseases (cont’d)
 Coronary artery disease
– Treatments:
 Control of exercise, administration of
nitroglycerin
 Angioplasty (PTCA)
 Bypass (CABG)

Heart Diseases (con’t)
 Myocardial infarction = heart attack
 Symptoms:
– Precordial or epigastric pain
– Pain extending to jaw, arms
– Pallor (turns pale)
– Diaphoresis
– Nausea
– Dyspnea (difficulty breathing)
– May also be burning sensation similar to heartburn
 Arrhythmia
– Irregularity of heart rhythm
 Bradycardia = slower than average
 Tachycardia = faster than average
 Fibrillation = extremely rapid, ineffective
– Controlled:
 Short term with defibrillator
 Long term with pacemaker

 Heart failure
– Heart fails to empty effectively, leading to edema
 Congenital heart disease
– Birth defects
– Most can be corrected surgically
 Rheumatic heart disease
– Streptococcus infection damaging heart valves

Disorders of the Veins
 Varicose veins
– Breakdown in valves with chronic
dilatation
– Contributing factors:
 Heredity
 Obesity
 Prolonged standing
 Pregnancy

Disorders of the Veins (con’t)
 Phlebitis = inflammation of veins
 Causes:
– Infection
– Injury
– Poor circulation
– Valve damage
 Can result in thrombophlebitis (blood clot)
 Most damaging if occurring deep
Lymphatic Disorders
 Lymphadenitis = enlargement of lymph

nodes
 Lymphedema = tissue swelling
 Lymphoma = neoplastic disease
affecting white blood cells

MEDICAL
TERMINOLOGY OF
Respiration

Respiratory System
 Main functions:
– Provide oxygen to cells
– Eliminate carbon dioxide
 Works closely with cardiovascular
system to accomplish gas exchange
 Gas exchange occurs in lungs

Respiratory System

Upper Respiratory Passageways
 Air enters through nose, past sinus

cavities
 Air then passes through pharynx
 Pharynx divided into three regions:
– Nasopharynx (upper)
– Oropharynx (middle)
– Laryngeal (lower)

Lower Respiratory Passageways and
Lungs
 Pharynx conducts air into trachea, through
larynx and glottis
 Epiglottis prevents food from entering
respiratory tract
 Larynx contains vocal cords (allows speech)
 Trachea divides into bronchus
– Smallest tubes = bronchioles
– Alveoli = microscopic air sacs where gas exchange
occurs
Vocal Cords

The Larynx

Breathing
 Ventilation made up of:
– Inspiration
 Phrenic nerve stimulates diaphragm to contract
and flatten
 Chest cavity enlarges
 Change in pressure causes air to be pulled in
– Expiration
 Breathing muscles relax
 Lungs return to original size
 Air forced out
Pulmonary Ventilation

Gas Transport
 Oxygen in blood
– Attached to hemoglobin in red blood cells
– Released to cells as needed
 Carbon dioxide mostly as carbonic acid

– Amount formed regulates blood pH

Clinical Aspects of Respiration
 Pulmonary function affected by conditions that:
– Cause resistance to air flow
– Limit proper expansion of chest
 Conditions directly affecting respiratory system:
– Infection
– Injury
– Allergy
– Aspiration
– Cancer

Changes in Ventilation
 Changes in ventilation affect pH of blood

– Alkalosis = too much carbon dioxide exhaled by
hyperventilation (blood too alkaline)
– Acidosis = too little carbon dioxide exhaled by
hypoventilation (blood too acidic)

Infections
 Pneumonia
– Caused by several different microorganisms
– Leading cause of death in debilitated patients
 Tuberculosis
– Caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis
– Symptoms:
 Fever
 Weight loss
 Weakness
 Cough
 Hemoptysis (sputum with blood)
 Influenza
– Viral disease of respiratory tract
Emphysema
 Overexpansion and destruction of

alveoli
 Causes:
– Exposure to cigarette smoke or pollution
– Chronic infection
 Classified under chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) heading

Asthma
 Narrowing of bronchial tubes
 Main factor may be irritation caused by allergy
 Symptom of wheezing indicated by:
– Constriction of bronchial tubes
– Edema of bronchial linings
– Accumulation of mucus
 Extreme “attacks” may result in:
– Dyspnea
– Cyanosis

Pneumoconiosis
 Chronic irritation and inflammation
– Caused by inhalation of dust particles
 Occupational hazard of mining and
stonework
 Different forms named for specific dusts:
– Silicosis (silica or quartz)
– Antracosis (coal)
– Asbestosis (asbestos fibers)

Disorders of Pleura
 Pleurisy = inflammation of pleura, usually with
infection
– Main symptom is pain which causes rapid, shallow
breathing
 Accumulation of substances between layers of pleura
lead to other conditions:
– Pneumothorax
– Empyema
– Hemothorax
– Hydrothorax
 Fluids removed by thoracentesis
Thoracentesis

Lung Cancer
 Leading cause of cancer-related deaths
– Usually cannot be detected early
– Metastasizes rapidly
 Major risk factors:
– Cigarette smoking
– Other forms of cancer
 Diagnosed by:
– Radiographic studies
– CT scans
– Sputum examination
– Bronchoscope

Respiratory Distress Syndrome
 Occurs in premature infants
 Results from lack of surfactant in lungs
 Acute respiratory distress syndrome
– May result from:
 Trauma
 Allergic reactions
 Infection
 Other causes
– Involves edema that can cause respiratory failure

Cystic Fibrosis
 Hereditary disease caused by flawed gene
 Affects glandular secretions
 Bronchial secretions thicken leading to:
– Infection
– Other respiratory disorders
 Diagnosed by:
– Increased sodium and chloride in sweat
– DNA analysis
 No cure, only symptom relief
Diagnosis
 Methods for diagnosing respiratory disorders:
– Radiographs
– CT scans
– MRI scans
– Lung scans
– Bronchoscopy
– Tests of pleural fluid removed with thoracentesis

Diagnosis (cont’d)
 Methods for diagnosing respiratory disorders:
– Examination of arterial blood gases
 Evaluate gas exchange
 Measures:
– Carbon dioxide
– Oxygen
– Bicarbonate
– Blood pH
– Pulse oximetry
 Measure oxygen saturation of arterial blood
– Pulmonary function tests
 Spirometer measures volume of air moved with varying
degrees of effort
MEDICAL
TERMINOLOGY OF
Digestion

Digestion
 Prepares food for cellular intake

– Nutrients must be small enough to be absorbed
– Nutrients broken down by mechanical and
chemical means
 Occurs in digestive tract
 Food moved by peristalsis

Digestive System

The Mouth to the Small Intestine
 Digestion begins in mouth
– Mastication breaks up food
– Tongue and palate mix in saliva
– Moistened food passed:
 Into pharynx → through esophagus →into stomach
 Churning of stomach further breaks down food by:
– Mixing with enzyme pepsin and HCl

The Mouth to the Small Intestine
(con’t)
 Partially digested food passes through pylorus
into duodenum
 Digestion completed after passing through
other parts of small intestine (jejunum and
ileum)
 Digested nutrients absorbed into circulation

Accessory Organs

Accessory Organs
 Liver
– Secretes bile to break down fats
 Gallbladder
– Bile stored here until needed
 Pancreas
– Produces mixture of digestive enzymes

The Large Intestine
 Undigested food, water, digestive juices
 Begins with cecum
 Colon twists and turns:
– Ascending colon
– Transverse colon
– Descending colon
 Water reabsorbed, feces formed
 Waste material passes into sigmoid colon
 Waste stored in rectum; eliminated through anus
Clinical Aspects of Digestion
 Gastrointestinal tract
 Infection
– Can be caused by variety of organisms
 Ulcers
– Lesion of skin or mucous membrane
– Marked by inflammation or tissue damage
– Can be diagnosed by:
 Endoscopy
 Barium study (Radiography with contrast medium)

Cancer
 Colon and rectum most likely affected

area
 Risk factors:
– Diet low in fiber, high in fat
– Heredity
– Chronic inflammation of colon (colitis)
 Polyps often become cancerous
 Symptom: bleeding into intestine
Cancer (con’t)
 Internal observations performed with
endoscopes
 Treatment may require surgical removal of
portion of GI tract
– May create a stoma for waste elimination
– Surgery is called –ostomy, with root named for
involved organ (e.g. colostomy)

Obstructions
 Hernia
– Protrusion of organ through abnormal
opening
 Pyloric stenosis
– Opening between stomach and small
intestine too narrow
 Intussusception
– Slipping of part of intestine into part below

Obstructions (con’t)
 Volvulus
– Intestinal twisting
 Ileus
– Intestinal obstruction caused by lack of
peristalsis
 Hemorrhoids
– Varicose veins in rectum

Appendicitis
 Results from infection of appendix

 Surgery required to:
– Avoid rupture
– Prevent peritonitis

Diverticulitis
 Many small pouches in wall of intestine
 Attributed to diet low in fiber
 If pouches collect waste and bacteria,
leads to diverticulitis
 Treated with:
– Diet improvement
– Stool softeners
– Drugs to reduce motility

Inflammatory Bowel Disease
 Crohn disease
– Chronic inflammation of intestinal wall segments, usually
ileum
– May causes:
 Pain
 Diarrhea
 Abscess
 Formation of fistula
 Ulcerative colitis
– Continuous inflammation of colon lining, usually rectum

Hepatitis
 Inflammation of the liver

 More than six types of viral infections
– Hepatitis A
 Spread by fecal-oral contamination
– Hepatitis B
 Spread by blood and other body fluids
– Vaccines available for Hepatitis A and B

Cirrhosis
 Chronic liver disease mainly caused by excess
consumption of alcohol
 Characterized by:
– Hepatomegaly
– Edema
– Ascites
– Jaundice
 As it progresses:
– Splenomegaly
– Internal bleeding
– Brain damage
Gallstones
 Cholecystitis
– Inflammation of gallbladder
 Cholelithiasis
– Presence of stones in gallbladder
– Usually associated with cholecystitis
 Diagnosed by:
– Ultrasonography
– Radiography
– Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography
 Treatment may involve:
– Drugs to dissolve stones
– Cholecystectomy

Pancreatitis
 Inflammation of pancreas
 May result from:
– Alcohol abuse
– Drug toxicity
– Bile obstruction
– Infections
– Other causes
 Disease often subsides with only
treatment of symptoms
Gastrojejunostomy (Billroth II
Operation)

MEDICAL
TERMINOLOGY OF
The Urinary System

Urinary System
 Function = to form and eliminate urine
 Consists of:
– Two kidneys
 Organs of excretion
 Regulate body fluids’ composition, volume, and pH
 Produces erythropoietin
 Produces renin
– Two ureters
– Urinary bladder
– Urethra
Male Urinary System

The Kidneys
 Located behind peritoneum in lumbar region
 Adrenal glands rest on top
 Encased in fibrous connective tissue overlaid
with fat
 Additional layer of connective tissue
supports and anchors kidney
 Outer region = renal cortex
 Inner region = renal medulla
Longitudinal Section Through
the Kidney

The Nephrons
 Microscopic working units of kidneys
 Coiled tubule folded into various shapes
– Bowman capsule at beginning of tubule
 Cup-shaped
 Part of blood-filtering device of nephron
– Tubule folds into proximal convoluted tubule
– Straightens to form loop of Henle
– Coils into distal convoluted tubule
– Straightens again to form collecting tubule

Blood Supply to the Kidney
 Towards kidney, blood:

– Enters through renal artery
– Is brought to glomerular capsule (Bowman’s)
– Then circulates through glomerulus
 Away from kidney
– Vessels merge into renal vein
– Empty into inferior vena cava

Urine Formation
 Blood pressure forces material through
glomerular wall and capsule, into nephron
 Glomerular filtrate consists of:
– Water
– Electrolytes
– Soluble wastes
– Nutrients
– Toxins
 Urea = main waste material (byproduct of
protein metabolism)
Urine Formation (con’t)
 Waste material and toxins need to be
eliminated
 Water, electrolytes, nutrients returned to blood
 Remaining fluid is urine
– Adjusted by pituitary hormone ADH

Removal of Urine
 Urine
– Drained from renal pelvis
– Carried by ureter to urinary bladder before
release
 Urethra
– Expulses urine when bladder muscle contracts
 Sphincters
– Regulate urination
– Upper has involuntary function
– Lower functions under conscious control
Interior of Urinary Bladder

Clinical Aspects of the Urinary System
 Infections of urinary tract

– Organisms usually enter through urethra
– Usually colon bacteria in feces
– UTI’s more common in females
– Cystitis produced

Infections (con’t)
 Infections of kidney and renal pelvis
– Pyelonephritis
– Symptoms include:
 Dysuria
 Bacteriuria
 Pyuria
– Urethritis
 Inflammation of urethra
 Associated with sexually transmitted diseases

Glomerulonephritis
 Inflammation of kidney and glomeruli

 Specifically occurs after immunologic reaction
 Usually response to infection in another system
 Symptoms:
– Hypertension
– Edema
– Oliguria (passage of small amounts of urine)

Glomerulonephritis (con’t)
 Damage to kidney tissue
 Blood and proteins escape into nephrons
 Causes:
– Hematuria
– Proteinuria
– Casts
 May lead to:
– Chronic renal failure
– End-stage renal disease
– Uremia
Acute Renal Failure
 May result from damage to nephrons caused
by:
– Injury
– Shock
– Exposure to toxins
– Infections
– Other renal disorders
 Rapid loss of kidney function
 May lead to dialysis or transplantation
Dialysis
 Hemodialysis = Cleansing of blood cleansed
– Passed over membrane surrounded by dialysate to
remove unwanted substances
 Peritoneal dialysis = fluids introduced to
peritoneal cavity
– Periodically withdrawn with waste products
– Process repeated

Urinary Stones
 Called urinary lithiasis
 Formed of calcium salts
 May result from:
– Dehydration
– Infection
– Abnormal urine pH
– Urinary stasis
– Metabolic imbalances

Urinary Stones (con’t)
 Result in extreme pain
 Can cause:
– Obstruction that can promote infection
– Hydronephrosis
 Stone removal
– May pass on own
– Surgically
– Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy via
endoscope
Cancer
 Linked to:
– Chemicals
– Parasitic infections
– Cigarette smoking
 Key symptom is sudden, painless hematuria
 Viewed or biopsy done with cystoscope
 Cystectomy may be required if tumor removal not
effective
 Other diagnosing processes:
– Ultrasound
– Computed tomography scans
– Intravenous urography
Urinalysis
 Simple, widely-used diagnosing process
 Urine examined and tested for:
– Color
– Turbidity
– Specific gravity
– pH level
– Chemical components
– Cells, crystals, or casts

MEDICAL
TERMINOLOGY OF
The Male
Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System
 Function:
– Produce gametes (reproductive cells)
 Generated by meiosis
 Number of chromosomes cut in half
 Fertilization restores chromosome
number
– Produce hormones
 Aid production of gametes
 Used in pregnancy and lactation
 Regulate secondary sex characteristics

The Testes
 Male germ cells (spermatozoa) produced inside

 Testes suspended outside body in scrotum
 Spermatozoa form within testes starting at
puberty

Male Genitourinary System

Transport of Spermatozoa
 Sperm cells stored in epididymis
 Ejaculation propels them out through series of ducts
– Vas deferens
– Ejaculatory duct
– Urethra
– Penis
 Transports both semen and urine
 Enlarged at tip to form glans penis

Formation of Semen
 Spermatozoa transported in semen

 Thick, whitish fluid containing:
– Sperm cells
– Secretion from:
 Seminal vesicles
 Prostrate gland
 Bulbourethral (Cowper) glands

Clinical Aspects of the Male
Reproductive System
 Infections
 Most are sexually transmitted
– Most common is caused by bacterium
Chlamydia trachomatis
– Gonorrhea caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae
– Herpes caused by a virus
 Non-sexually transmitted
– Mumps caused by a virus, infects testes

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
 Prostate gland normally enlarges as men age
 Can press on urethra near bladder
 Can cause:
– Urinary retention
– Infection
 Treatments include:
– Medications for relaxing smooth muscle in
prostate
– Drugs that interfere with testosterone activity
– Saw palmetto (herbal remedy)
– Prostatectomy (removal of prostate)
Cancer of the Prostate
 Most common malignancy in U.S. men
 Third leading cause of cancer-related deaths
 May metastasize rapidly
 Difficult to remove surgically
 Possible treatments
– Radiation
– Measures to reduce androgens (stimulates
prostatic growth)
– Chemotherapy

Cryptorchidism
 Testes normally descend into scrotum by
birth
 If not termed cryptorchidism from:
– (Crypt/o) hidden
– (Orchid/o) testis
 May correct itself within first year of life
 Must be surgically corrected to avoid:
– Sterility
– Increased risk of cancer
Infertility
 Inability or diminished ability to reproduce
 Causes include:
– Hereditary
– Hormones
– Related to disease
– Exposure to chemical or physical agents
– Sexually transmitted diseases
 Total inability to reproduce termed sterility
 Voluntary sterility done with vasectomy

Erectile Dysfunction
 Also known as impotence
 Lack of ability to perform intercourse due to
inability to:
– Initiate erection
– Maintain erection until ejaculation
 Causes:
– Psychogenic
– Physical
– Neurogenic
– Pharmacological
Erectile Dysfunction (con’t)
 Possible treatments:
– Drugs to dilate arteries in penis to increase blood
flow
 Sildenafil (Viagra)
– Penile vacuum pumps
– Penile prostheses

Inguinal Hernia
 Testes descend through inguinal canal
 Canal may represent weakness in abdominal
wall
 Can lead to hernia
– Indirect (external) hernia
– Direct (internal) hernia
– Strangulated hernia
 Treatment
– Herniorrhaphy (surgery to correct)

Inguinal Hernia

MT OF
The Female
Reproductive System;
Pregnancy and Birth
Female Reproductive System
 Ovaries are female gonads
 Held by ligaments in pelvic cavity
 Ova (eggs) develop inside
 At ovulation one ovum released from
ovary
 Follicle remains behind
– If no fertilization, functions for two weeks
– If fertilization, functions for two months

Oviducts
 After ovulation, ovum moves into one oviduct

(tube)
– Attached to upper lateral portion of uterus
– Arches above ovary
– Fingerlike projections (fimbriae) sweep released
ovum into oviduct

Uterus
 Pear-shaped organ that nourishes fetus
– Upper rounded fundus
– Triangular cavity
– Lower narrow cervix

Uterus (con’t)
 Endometrium
– Innermost layer of uterine wall
– Rich blood supply
– Receives fertilized ovum
– Becomes part of placenta if pregnancy occurs
– If no fertilization, endometrium is shed
during menstrual period
 Myometrium
– Muscle layer of uterine wall

Vagina
 Muscular tube
 Functions:
– Transports menstrual flow from body
– Receives penis during intercourse
– Acts as birth canal

External Genital Organs
 Collectively known as vulva
 Includes:
– Labia majora
– Labia minora
– Clitoris

External Genital Organs (con’t)
 Perineum
– Region between thighs
– From external organs to anus
– Episiotomy procedure
 Facilitates childbirth
 Prevents tearing of tissue
 Technically perineotomy
– Because root episi/o means “vulva”

Mammary Glands
 Commonly known as breasts
 Composed of:
– Glandular tissue
– Fat
 Function:
– Provide nourishment to newborn
 Milk:
– Secreted by glands
– Carried in ducts to nipple

Menstrual Cycle
 Starts with menarche
 Controlled by anterior pituitary gland

Menstrual Cycle (cont’d)
 FSH begins cycle
– Ovum ripens in graafian follicle
 Follicle secrets estrogen
– Hormone prepares endometrium for egg
 LH (luteinizing hormone)
– Triggers ovulation and conversion of follicle to
corpus lutem
 Corpus lutem
– Remains in ovary
– Secretes progesterone and estrogen

Menstrual Cycle (con’t)
 If no fertilization:
– Hormone levels decline
– Endometrium is released in menstruation
 Average cycle 28 days
– Ovulation occurs about day 14

Menopause
 End of monthly menstrual cycles
– Usually occurs between 45 and 55
– Hormone levels decline
– Egg cells degenerate
 Possible symptoms:
– Hot flashes
– Headaches
– Insomnia
– Mood swings
– Urinary problems
– Vaginal dryness
Contraception
 Prevention of fertilization of ovum by:
– Stopping sperm penetration
– Preventing ovulation
 Prevention of implantation of ovum by:
– Inserting IUD
 Sterilization by:
– Vasectomy (Male)
– Tubal ligation (Female)

Sterilization

Fertilization
 Sperm cell penetrates ovulated egg
– Nuclei fuse
– Chromosome number restored
– Zygote travels through oviduct toward uterus
 Divides rapidly on the way
 Implants into endometrium

Placenta
 Organ formed from chorion and endometrium
 Nourishes fetus
 Umbilical cord links fetus to placenta
– Two umbilical arteries carry blood
– One umbilical vein
 Fetus protected by amniotic sac
– Sac ruptures at birth

Fetal Circulation
 Fetus has adaptations to lungs for blood
oxygenation
 Pulmonary artery bypassed
– Small hole in septum between atria
– Ductus arteriosus
 Bypasses close at birth
– Pulmonary circuit established

Fetal Circulation

Childbirth
 Pregnancy calculated as 40 weeks
– Divided into 3 three-month periods
(trimesters)
 Parturition occurs in three stages:
– Contractions, dilation of cervix
– Expulsion of fetus
– Delivery of placenta, fetal membranes
 Gravida refers to pregnant women
 Para refers to woman who has given birth
Lactation
 Secretion of milk from breasts
 Started by:
– Hormone prolactin from anterior pituitary
gland
– Hormones from placenta
 Release stimulated by suckling
– Colostrum only first few days
 Slightly different composition
 Still has protective antibodies

Clinical Aspects of Female
Reproduction
 Infections
– May be predisposed to infections with:
 Pregnancy
 Diabetes mellitus
 Use of:
– Antibiotics
– Steroids
– Birth control pills

Infections (cont’d)
 Pelvic inflammatory disease
– Spread of infection from reproductive organs
to pelvic cavity
– Caused by gonorrhea or chlamydia
– May result in septicemia or shock

Infections (cont’d)
 Salpingitis
– Inflammation of oviducts
– May close off tubes causing infertility
 Candidiasis
– Fungus affecting vulva and vagina
 Vaginitis
– Thick, white, cheesy discharge with itching

Endometriosis
 Growth of endometrial tissue outside uterus
 Causes:
– Inflammation
– Fibrosis
– Adhesions
 Results in:
– Pain
– Dysmenorrhea
– Infertility
 Laparoscopy
– For diagnosis
– To remove abnormal tissue
Menstrual Disorders
 Dysfunctional uterine bleeding
– Oligomenorrhea (too light flow)
– Menorrhagia (too heavy flow)
– Amenorrhea (absence of monthly flow)
– Dysmenorrhea (painful, difficult menstruation)
 Caused by:
– Hormone imbalances
– Systemic disorders
– Uterine problems
 More common in adolescence or near
menopause
Menstrual Disorders (con’t)
 Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
 Describes symptoms appearing in 2nd half of cycle
 Symptoms include:
– Emotional changes
– Fatigue
– Bloating
– Headaches
– Appetite changes

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
(cont’d)
 Possible symptom relief:
– Hormone therapy
– Antidepressants
– Antianxiety medications
– Exercise
– Dietary control
– Rest
– Relaxation

Cancer of Female Reproductive Tract
 Cancer of endometrium
– Most common female reproductive cancer
– Not always detected by Pap smear
– Treatment with:
 Hysterectomy
 Radiation therapy

Cancer of Female Reproductive Tract
(cont’d)
 Cervical cancer
– Almost all patients also have been infected
with HPV
– Preceded by dysplasia of epithelial cells
lining cervix
– Diagnosis with:
 Pap smear
 Colposcope exam
 Biopsy

Cancer (con’t)
 Cancer of ovary
– No early symptoms
– High mortality rate
 Treatment
– Oophorectomy
– Salpingectomy
– Hysterectomy
– Chemotherapy
– Radiation therapy

Breast Cancer
 Second-leading cause of cancer-related deaths
in U.S. women
 Metastasizes rapidly via lymph nodes
 Diagnosed with mammography
 Treatment:
– Masectomy (removal of breast)
– Chemotherapy
– Hormone therapy

Clinical Aspects of Pregnancy and
Birth
 Pregnancy-induced hypertension
– State of hypertension during pregnancy
– Associated with:
 Oliguria
 Proteinuria
 Edema
– Caused by hormonal imbalance
– May lead to eclampsia

Clinical Aspects of Pregnancy
and Birth (con’t)
 Ectopic pregnancy
– Development of fertilized egg outside uterus
– Usually results in tubal pregnancy
 May be caused by:
– Salpingitis
– Endometriosis
– PID
 Symptoms:
– Pain
– Tenderness
– Swelling
– Shock
Ectopic Pregnancy

Miscarriage
 Loss of embryo or fetus before twentieth
week
 Most often occurs within first three months
 Possible causes:
– Poor maternal health
– Hormone imbalance
– Incompetence of cervix
– Immune reactions
– Tumors
– Fetal abnormalities (most common)
Placental Abnormalities
 Placenta previa
– Placenta attaches near or over cervix
– May cause bleeding in later stages of pregnancy
 Placenta abruption
– Premature separation of placenta from attachment,
causing hemorrhage
– Causes:
 Injury
 Maternal hypertension
 Advanced maternal age

Mastitis
 Inflammation of breast
– Usually occurs in early weeks of breastfeeding
– Caused by staphylococcus or streptococcus
– Symptoms:
 Breast
– Red
– Swollen
– Tender
 Patient
– Chills
– Fever
– General discomfort
Congenital Disorders
 Commonly known as birth defects
 Two categories: developmental and hereditary
 Genetic disorders:
– Genes
 Changes in single or multiple genes
– Chromosomes
 Change in number or structure
– Carrier
 Individual with “non-appearing” genetic defect
 Can be passed to offspring
Teratogens
 Factors that cause malformations in developing
fetus
 Examples include:
– Infections
– Alcohol
– Drugs
– Chemicals
– Radiation
Teratogens (cont’d)
 Developmental disorders
– Atresia (absence or closure of normal body
opening)
– Anencephaly (absence of brain)
– Cleft lip and palate
– Spina bifida (incomplete closure of spine)

MT OF
The Endocrine System

Hormones
 Self-regulating system
 Production
– Extremely small amounts
– Highly potent
 Affect:
– Growth
– Metabolism
– Behavior
 Two categories:
– Lipid (Steroid)
– Amino acid
Endocrine Glands

Pituitary
 Also known as hypophysis

 Located beneath brain
 Divided into two lobes:
– Anterior
 Releases six hormones
– Posterior
 Releases two hormones

Thyroid and Parathyroids
 Thyroid gland
– Located on either side of larynx and upper trachea
– Two lobes
– Secretes mixture of hormones
 Parathyroid glands
– Located at posterior surface of thyroid
– Affect calcium metabolism

Adrenal Glands
 Hormones produced involved in body’s response to
stress
 Located atop each kidney
 Divided into two regions
– Outer cortex produces:
 Steroid hormones
 Cortisol
 Aldosterone
 Sex hormones
– Inner medulla produces

 Epinphrine
 Norepinephrine
Pancreas
 Islet cells produce two hormones:
– Insulin
 Increases cellular use of glucose
 Decreases sugar levels in blood
– Glucagon
 Decreases cellular use of glucose
 Increases sugar levels in blood

Other Endocrine Tissues
 Thymus
– Secretes thymosin
 Gonads
– Secrete sex hormones
 Prostaglandins
– Group of hormones produced by many cells
– Variety of effects
 Uterine contractions
 Inflammatory response
 Vasomotor activities

Clinical Aspects of Endocrine System
 Endocrine diseases result from:
– Hypersecretion
– Hyposecretion
– Secretion at wrong time
– Failure of target tissue to respond
 Causes may originate:
– In gland itself
– With hypothalamus or pituitary failing to
release proper amount of hormone
stimulators
Pituitary
 Pituitary adenoma usually increases

secretion of growth hormone
– Excess in children causes gigantism
– Excess in adults causes acromegaly
 Treatment
– Surgery
– Drugs to reduce hormone level in blood

Pituitary (con’t)
 Panhypopituitarism
– Hypofunction of pituitary
– Caused by tumor or interruption of gland’s blood
supply
– Widespread effects
 Lack of ADH
– Results in diabetes insipidus
 Kidneys with diminished ability to conserve water
 Symptoms include:
– Polyuria
– Polydipsia
Thyroid
 Deficiency of thyroid hormone causes:
– In infants
 Physical retardation
 Mental retardation
 Congenital hypothyroidism
– In adults
 Myxedema
 Hyperthyroidism
– Common form is Graves disease
– May result in goiter (enlarged thyroid)
 Not always results from thyroid malfunction

Parathyroids
 Overactivity causes high level of calcium in
blood
– Calcium obtained from bones
– Possible development of kidney stones
 Underactivity results in decreased calcium
– May cause:
 Tingling
 Numbness
 Tetany

Adrenals
 Addison disease = hypofunction of adrenal
cortex
– Caused by:
 Autoimmune destruction of gland
 ACTH deficiency
– Results in:
 Water loss
 Low blood pressure
 Electrolyte imbalance
 Weakness
 Nausea
 Increase of brown pigmentation
Adrenals (cont’d)
 Cushing syndrome = excess of adrenal cortisol
hormones
– Caused by:
 Therapeutic administration of steroid hormones
 Tumor
– Results in:
 Moon-shaped face
 Localized obesity
 Weakness
 Hirsutism
 Fluid retention
Pancreas and Diabetes
 Diabetes mellitus
– Most common endocrine disorder
– Failure to use glucose effectively
– Excess glucose causes hyperglycemia
– Two types:
 Type 1 (juvenile-onset or insulin-dependent)
 Type 2 (adult-onset or non-insulin dependent)

Type 1 Diabetes
 Usually appears in children and
teenagers
 Caused by failure of pancreatic islets to
produce insulin
 For proper management:
– Monitor blood sugar levels
– Give insulin in divided doses
– Regulate diet

Type 2 Diabetes
 Initiated by cellular resistance to insulin
 May result in:
– Metabolic syndrome
– Hypoglycemia
– Insulin shock
 Diagnosed by measuring levels of glucose in
blood plasma
 Most cases linked to obesity
 Another form is gestational diabetes mellitus
MT OF
The Nervous System
and Behavioral
Disorders
Nervous System
 Controls body functions with electric
impulses
 Two physical systems
– Central nervous system
 Brain
 Spinal cord
– Peripheral nervous system
 All other nerve tissue

Nervous System (con’t)
 Two functional systems
– Somatic nervous system
 Controls skeletal muscles
– Autonomic nervous system
 Controls:
– Smooth muscles
– Cardiac muscles
– Glands

Anatomic Divisions of Nervous System

The Neuron
 Basic functional unit of nervous system
 Two types of fibers extend from cell body
– Dendrite
 Carries impulses toward cell body
– Axon
 Carries impulses away from cell body
 Some covered with myelin

The Neuron (con’t)
 Types of neurons
– Sensory neurons
 Transmit impulses towards CNS
– Motor neurons
 Transmit impulses away from CNS
– Connecting neurons
 Contact at synapse

Motor Neuron

Nerves
 Bundles of neuron fibers in PNS

 Ganglion = collection of cell bodies along
nerve pathway
 Most nerves contain both sensory and
motor fibers

The Brain
 Cerebrum
– Largest part of brain
– Composed mostly of white matter
– Also houses cerebral cortex
 Thin outer layer of gray matter
 Higher brain functions
– Divided into two hemispheres
– Deep groove separates hemispheres
 Called longitudinal fissure
The Diencephalon
 Contains:
– Thalamus
 Receives sensory information
 Directs info to proper portion of cortex
– Hypothalamus
 Controls pituitary gland
 Serves as link between endocrine and nervous
systems
– Pituitary gland

The Brainstem
 Midbrain
– Contains reflex centers for improved vision and
hearing
 Pons
– Contains fibers that connect different regions of brain
 Medulla oblongata
– Connects brain with spinal cord
– All impulses to and from brain pass through
– Controls:
 Heart rate
 Respiration
 Blood pressure
Cerebellum
 Located:
– Under cerebrum
– Dorsal to pons and medulla
 Controls and maintains:
– Voluntary muscle movements
– Posture
– Coordination
– Balance

Meninges
 Set of three protective layers covering brain
and spinal cord
– Dura mater
 Outermost layer
– Arachnoid
 Middle layer
– Pia mater
 Thin, vascular inner layer
 Attached directly to brain and spinal cord tissue

External Surface of the Brain

The Spinal Cord
 Extends from medulla oblongata to

between 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae
 Consists of:
– Gray matter
 Central area surrounded by white matter
– White matter
 Contains tracts for impulses

Spinal Nerves
 31 pairs of spinal nerves connect with spinal
cord
 Grouped in segments:
– Cervical (8)
– Thoracic (12)
– Lumbar (5)
– Sacral (5)
– Coccygeal (1)

Spinal Nerves (cont’d)
 Nerves joins cord by two roots:

– Posterior (dorsal)
 Carries sensory impulses into spinal
cord
– Anterior (ventral)
 Carries motor impulses from spinal cord
to muscle or gland

Cross-section of Spinal Cord

Autonomic Nervous System
 Controls involuntary actions of muscles
and glands
 Divided into two divisions:
– Sympathetic nervous system
 Stimulates body responses:
– “Fight-or-flight” response
– Increased heart rate
– Increased respiration rate
– Activates adrenal gland
– Delivers more blood to skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System
(cont’d)
 Parasympathetic nervous system
– Returns body to steady state
– Stimulates maintenance activities
 Most organs affected by both divisions
 Sympathetic and parasympathetic have
opposite effects on the body

Vascular Disorders
 Stroke or cerebrovascular accident
– Any occurrence of brain tissue not getting oxygen
– 3rd leading cause of death in developed world
– Leading cause of neurologic disability
– Risk factors:
 Hypertension
 Atherosclerosis
 Heart disease
 Diabetes mellitus
 Cigarette smoking
 Heredity
Thrombosis
 Formation of blood clot in vessel, often
in carotid artery
 Sudden blockage caused by traveling
obstruction termed embolism
 Diagnosed with:
– Cerebral angiography
– CT scans
– Other radiographic techniques
 Treatment
– Carotid endarterectomy
– Drugs to dissolve clot
Aneurysm
 Localized dilation of vessel
 May rupture and cause hemorrhage
 Causes:
– Congenital
– Atherosclerosis
– Hypertension
 May lead to:
– Aphasia
– Hemiplegia
Trauma
 Epidural hematoma
– Bleeding between dura mater and skull bone
– Usually results from blow to side of head
 Subdural hematoma
– Bleeding between dura mater and arachnoid
– Usually results from blow to front or back of head
 Concussion
– Can result from blow to head or fall
– May also encounter contrecoup injury
Locations of Hematomas

Infections
 Bacterial meningitis
– Inflammation of meninges
 Common symptom is stiff neck
 Diagnosed with lumbar puncture

Infections
 Viral meningitis (another form)
– Encephalitis (inflammation of the brain)
– Also includes other viruses that affect CNS:
 Rabies
 Polio
 HIV

Neoplasms
 Tumors originating in nervous system, usually
involving neuroglia
 Called gliomas
 Symptoms are dependent on size and location:
– Seizures
– Headaches
– Vomiting
– Muscle weakness
– Interference with one of the senses (hearing, vision)
Degenerative Diseases
 Multiple sclerosis
– Patchy loss of myelin with hardening of tissue in
CNS
– Symptoms:
 Vision problems
 Tingling, numbness in arms
 Urinary incontinence
 Tremor
 Stiff gait
– Exact cause is unknown

Degenerative Diseases (con’t)
 Parkinson disease
– Failure of midbrain neurons to secrete dopamine
 Leads to:
– Tremors
– Muscle rigidity
– Flexion at joints
– Akinesia
– Emotional problems
 Treated with L-dopa
Degenerative Diseases (con’t)
 Alzheimer disease
– Unexplained degeneration of neurons
– Atrophy of cerebral cortex
– May cause:
 Progressive loss of recent memory
 Confusion
 Mood changes
 Multi-infarct dementia
– Symptoms resemble those associated with
AD
– Caused by multiple small strokes
Epilepsy
 Seizures caused by abnormal electric brain activity
 Seizures vary:
– Brief and mild (petit mal)
– Major (grand mal)
 Serious seizures result in loss of consciousness and
convulsions
 Diagnosed with EEG revealing brain activity
abnormalities
 Treated with antiepileptic and anticonvulsive drugs
Sleep Disturbances
 Dyssomnia = general term for sleep disorders
 Insomnia
– Insufficient or nonrestorative sleep
 Narcolepsy
– Brief, uncontrollable “attacks” of sleep
– Treated with:
 Stimulants
 Regulation of sleep habits
 Short daytime naps
 Sleep apnea
– Failure to breathe for brief periods during sleep
– Usually results from upper airway obstruction

Sleep Disturbances (con’t)
 Diagnosed with:
– Physical examination
– Sleep history
– Log of sleep habits
 Details of sleep environment
 Consumed substances that may interfere with sleep
 Polysomnography
– Study in sleep laboratory
– Characterize two components of sleep
– Non-rapid eye movement (deep sleep stage)
– Rapid eye movement (dream stage)
Behavioral Disorders
 Anxiety disorders
– Generalized anxiety disorder
 Chronic excessive and uncontrollable worry
 May be accompanied with:
– Muscle tensing
– Restlessness
– Dyspnea
– Palpitations
– Insomnia
– Irritability

Behavioral Disorders (con’t)
 Panic disorder
– Anxiety with episodes of intense fear
 Phobias
– Extreme, persistent fears centered around objects
or situations
 Obsessive-compulsive disorder
– Condition w/ repetitive behaviors to relieve
anxiety
 Attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder
– Difficult to diagnose due to overlapping
symptoms
– Treated with2004
stimulant drugs
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Depression
 Usually coexists with physical or
emotional conditions
 Characterized by feelings of:
– Feelings of sadness
– Hopelessness
– Lack of interest
 Dysthymia
– Form of depression triggered by serious
event
 Bipolar disorder
– Depression with episodes of mania
Psychosis
 Mental state with gross misconception of
reality
 Characterized by:
– Delusions
– Paranoia
– Hallucinations
 Schizophrenia
– From of chronic psychosis

Autism
 Complex disorder of unknown cause
 Usually appears before age 3
 Marked by:
– Self-absorption
– Lack of response to social contact
– Low intelligence
– Poor language skills
– Inappropriate response to stimuli

Drugs Used in Treatment
 Psychotropic drugs
– Acts on mental state
 Category of drugs includes:
– Antianxiety (anxiolytics)
– Mood stabilizers
– Antidepressants
– Antipsychotics (neuroleptics)

MT OF
Blood and Immunity

Blood Plasma
 90% water
 Rest contains:
– Nutrients
– Electrolytes (dissolved salts)
– Gases
– Albumin (protein)
– Clotting factors
– Antibodies
– Wastes
– Enzymes
– Hormones
 Relative acidity (pH) steady at 7.4
Blood Cells
 Produced in red bone marrow

 Three kinds:
– Red = erythrocytes
– White = leukocytes
– Platelets = thrombocytes

Blood Cells

Erythrocytes
 Main function: carry oxygen to cells

 Most numerous of blood cells
 Short lifespan (120 days) requires constant
replacement
 Production regulated by erythropoietin
(hormone made in kidneys)

Leukocytes
 Five different types:
– Neutrophils
– Eosinophils
– Basophils
– Lymphocytes
– Monocytes
 Protect against foreign substances
 Relative numbers of each different for
different disease conditions

Platelets
 Important for hemostasis

 Most active during coagulation
– Stick together to plug injury site
– Interact with clotting factors in plasma to make
wound-sealing clot
– Convert fibrinogen to threads of fibrin
– Threads of fibrin trap blood cells and plasma to
make clot
Blood Types
 Determined by genetically inherited

proteins
 Most familiar groups are ABO and Rh
 Important to match for blood transfusions
 Compatible types determined by cross-
matching
The Immune System
 Launches specific attacks on disease

organisms
 Involves components of lymphatic system
and blood
 Immune system response from T cells or B
cells
– T cells mature in thymus gland
– B cells mature in lymphoid gland
Types of Immunity
 Passive immunity
– Transfer of antibodies
 Naturally (mother’s milk)
 Artificially (immune serum)
 Active immunity
– Individual’s own response to disease
organism
 Natural contact
 Vaccine

Clinical Aspects: Blood
 Anemia
– Decrease in hemoglobin in blood
– Can result from:
 Too few red blood cells
 Cells are too small
 Too little hemoglobin
 Key tests involve blood counts
 Symptoms include fatigue, shortness of breath
Types of Anemia
 Aplastic anemia = destruction of bone

marrow
 Nutritional anemia (includes pernicious
anemia) = deficiency of vitamin B12
 Sideroblastic anemia = body doesn’t use
iron properly
 Hemorrhagic anemia = results from blood
loss
Types of Anemia (con’t)
 Thalassemia (includes Cooley anemia)

– Hereditary disease causing rupture of red cells
– Affects production of hemoglobin
 Sickle cell anemia
– Mutation alters hemoglobin molecule
– Deformed cells block blood vessels and prevent
tissues from receiving oxygen

Coagulation Disorders
 Thrombocytopenia
– Deficiency in number of platelets
 Disseminated intravascular coagulation
– Widespread clotting, obstructing circulation to
tissues
 Hemophilia
– Hereditary deficiency of specific clotting factor
– Sex-linked disease: Passed from mother to son

Neoplasms
 Leukemia
– Rapidly dividing, but incompetent white blood cells
– Causes unknown, but may include radiation,
heredity
 Treatment includes:
– Chemotherapy
– Bone marrow transplantation
Neoplasms (con’t)
 Hodgkin disease
– Disease of lymphatic system that may spread
– Contains Reed-Sternberg cells (giant cells in lymph nodes)
 Non-hodgkin lymphoma
– Also malignant enlargement of lymph nodes
– More common, deadly than Hodgkin disease
 Multiple myeloma
– Cancer of blood-forming cells in bone marrow

Clinical Aspects: Immunity
 Hypersensitivity
– Commonly known as allergy
– More sensitive to allergens (pollen, dust)
 Anaphylactic reaction
– Severe generalized allergic response
– Must be treated with epinephrine (adrenaline)
 Delayed hypersensitivity reaction
– Involves T cells and takes 12 hours for onset (poison
ivy)
Clinical Aspects: Immunity (con’t)
 Immunodeficiency
– Any failure in immune system (AIDS)
 Starts with HIV infection
 Leaves individual susceptible to other infections
 Autoimmune disorder
– Immune response to own tissues
– Cause may be:
 Failure of immune system
 Body cells altered by mutation or disease

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INTRODUCTION:

NURS 1103 or HLSC 2613

 Approximately 75% of Medical

 1. Basic Elements of a Medical Word;

 10. Nervous System

Look Up Unfamiliar Terms

 Special vocabulary used by health care

 Begin with “learn”

 Insert an ‘o’ before a suffix beginning

 Roots shown with a combining vowel

 Most word parts derived from Greek

 Use phonetic pronunciations provided

 Soft c, as in racer = (RA-ser)

 Soft g, as in page, written as j = (paj)

 Used as shorthand in case histories

 Can save time

 Change x to c or g when adding a suffix

 Double the r in suffixes beginning with

 Usually derived form Greek or Latin

Gaster (stomach) Gastr

Hepar (liver) Hepat

Nephros (kidney) Nephr

Osteon (bone) oste

 Combining Form (CF) is a Word Root

 Cardi/ + o = cardi/o heart

 throac/o -tomy Thoracotomy

 gastr/o -megaly Gastromegaly

 Word element located at the beginning

 hyper- therm -ia

 intra- muscul -ar

 A WR (word root) is used before a

 A combining vowel is used to link a

 First, define the suffix or ending

 Explain the use of prefixes in medical

 Prefix = short word part added before a

 A-, an- = not; without

 Ad- = toward; near

 Hyper- = over, excess, abnormally high

 Ec-, ecto- = out; outside

 Ante- antepartum, antecubital

 epi epidermis, epidural,

 Suffix = word ending that modifies a

 Adjective endings meaning “pertaining

 Special plural forms

 Plural of virus is viruses

 -ist specialist urologist

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

 Located between lungs

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

 Right atrium receives blood from body

 Force of blood exerted against wall of blood

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

 Role in circulation: return excess fluid

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

 Blockage is usually blood clot