SSD Unit 1

EE 1403 - SOLID STATE DRIVES
UNIT 1 - Fundamentals of Electric Drives
1
Electrical Drives
Drives are systems employed for motion control
Require prime movers
Drives that employ electric motors as

prime movers are known as Electrical Drives
Electrical Drives
• About 50% of electrical energy used for drives
• Can be either used for fixed speed or variable speed

• 75% - constant speed, 25% variable speed (expanding)
Example on VSD application
Constant speed Variable Speed Drives
valve
Supply
motor pump
Power Power out

In
Power loss
Mainly in valve
valve
Supply Supply
motor pump motor
PEC pump
Power Power out

In Power Power out
In
Power loss
Power loss
Mainly in valve
valve
Supply Supply
motor pump motor
PEC pump
Power Power out

In Power Power out
In
Power loss
Power loss
Mainly in valve
Conventional electric drives (variable speed)
• Bulky
• Inefficient
• inflexible
Modern electric drives (With power electronic converters)
• Small
• Efficient
• Flexible
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ELECTRIC DRIVE
Components in electric drives
Motors
• DC motors - permanent magnet – wound field
• AC motors – induction, synchronous (IPMSM, SMPSM),
brushless DC
• Applications, cost, environment
Power sources
• DC – batteries, fuel cell, photovoltaic - unregulated
• AC – Single- three- phase utility, wind generator - unregulated
Power processor
• To provide a regulated power supply
• Combination of power electronic converters
•More efficient
•Flexible
•Compact
•AC-DC DC-DC DC-AC AC-AC
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1
Components in electric drives
Control unit
• Complexity depends on performance requirement
• analog- noisy, inflexible, ideally has infinite bandwidth.
• digital – immune to noise, configurable, bandwidth is smaller than
the analog controller’s
• DSP/microprocessor – flexible, lower bandwidth - DSPs perform
faster operation than microprocessors (multiplication in single
cycle), can perform complex estimations
AC-DC Converters or Rectifiers
AC-DC Converters or Rectifiers (Cont.)
AC Voltage Controller
VSI Controlled Inverter for IM Drive
CSI Controlled Drives for IM
DC – DC Converter (Chopper)
Overview of AC and DC drives
Extracted from Boldea & Nasar

DC motors: Regular maintenance, heavy, expensive, speed limit

Easy control, decouple control of torque and flux
AC motors: Less maintenance, light, less expensive, high speed

Coupling between torque and flux – variable
spatial angle between rotor and stator flux
Before semiconductor devices were introduced (<1950)

• AC motors for fixed speed applications
• DC motors for variable speed applications
After semiconductor devices were introduced (1950s)

• Variable frequency sources available – AC motors in variable
speed applications
• Coupling between flux and torque control
• Application limited to medium performance applications –
fans, blowers, compressors – scalar control
• High performance applications dominated by DC motors –

tractions, elevators, servos, etc
After vector control drives were introduced (1980s)

• AC motors used in high performance applications – elevators,
tractions, servos
• AC motors favorable than DC motors – however control is
complex hence expensive
• Cost of microprocessor/semiconductors decreasing –predicted

30 years ago AC motors would take over DC motors
Motor steady state torque-speed characteristic
SPEED
Synchronous mch
Induction mch
Separately / shunt DC mch
Series DC
TORQUE
By using power electronic converters, the motor

characteristics can be changed at will
Load steady state torque-speed characteristic

Frictional torque (passive load) • Exist in all motor-load drive
SPEED
T~ C system simultaneously
T~ 2
• In most cases, only one or two
T~  are dominating
• Exists when there is motion
TORQUE
Coulomb friction
Viscous friction
Friction due to turbulent flow


Constant torque, e.g. gravitational torque (active load)
SPEED
Gravitational torque
Vehicle drive
Te
TORQUE
TL
gM

FL
TL = rFL = r g M sin 

Hoist drive
Speed
Torque
Gravitational torque
Load and motor steady state torque
At constant speed, Te= Tl

Steady state speed is at point of intersection between Te and Tl of the
steady state torque characteristics
Torque Te Tl
Steady state
speed
r3 r1r r2 Speed

Thermal considerations
Unavoidable power losses causes temperature increase

Insulation used in the windings are classified based on the
temperature it can withstand.
Motors must be operated within the allowable maximum temperature
Sources of power losses (hence temperature increase):

- Conductor heat losses (i2R)
- Core losses – hysteresis and eddy current
- Friction losses – bearings, brush windage
Electrical machines can be overloaded as long their temperature

does not exceed the temperature limit
Accurate prediction of temperature distribution in machines is

complex – hetrogeneous materials, complex geometrical shapes
Simplified assuming machine as homogeneous body
Ambient temperature, To
p1 p2
Thermal capacity, C (Ws/oC)
Input heat power

Surface A, (m2) Emitted heat power
Surface temperature, T (oC)
(losses) (convection)
Power balance:
dT
C  p1  p 2
dt
Heat transfer by convection:
p 2  A (T  To ) , where  is the coefficient of heat transfer
Which gives:
dT A p
 T  1
dt C C
With T(0) = 0 and p1 = ph = constant ,
T 
ph
A

1  e t /   , where  
C
A
ph
T A T 
ph
A
1  e t /  
Heating transient
t

T
T  T(0)  e  t / 
T(0)
Cooling transient
 t
The duration of overloading depends on the modes of operation:
Continuous duty
Load torque is constant over extended
Continuous duty period multiple
Short reached
Steady state temperature time intermittent duty
Periodic intermittent duty
Nominal output power chosen equals or exceeds continuous load
p1n
Losses due to continuous load
T A
p1n
t

Short time intermittent duty

Operation considerably less than time constant, 
Motor allowed to cool before next cycle
Motor can be overloaded until maximum temperature reached
Short time intermittent duty p1s
p1
p1n
T p1s
A
p1n
A
Tmax
 t
t1
p1s p p1 
Short time intermittent duty p 1n p 1s1t11 e/ e t /  
 t1 / 
1
T p1n A1  eA1n 1s

t1
T 
p1s
A
1  e t /  
p1n
A
Tmax
 t
t1
Load cycles are repeated periodically
Motors are not allowed to completely cooled
Fluctuations in temperature until steady state temperature is reached

p1
heating coolling
heating coolling
heating coolling
t
Example of a simple case – p1 rectangular periodic pattern
pn = 100kW, nominal power

M = 800kg
= 0.92, nominal efficiency
T= 50oC, steady state temperature rise due to pn
1  p1 9000
p1  p n   1  9kW Also, A    180 W / o C
  T 50
If we assume motor is solid iron of specific heat c FE=0.48 kWs/kgoC,

thermal capacity C is given by
C = cFE M = 0.48 (800) = 384 kWs/oC
Finally , thermal time constant = 384000/180 = 35 minutes

Example of a simple case – p1 rectangular periodic pattern
For a duty cycle of 30% (period of 20 mins), heat losses of twice the nominal,
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
4
x 10
Type of Loads
• Load torque can be of two types
• Active load torque:- Active torques continues to act in the

same direction irrespective of the direction of the drive. e.g.
gravitational force or deformation in elastic bodies.
• Passive load torque:- the sense of the load torque changes

with the change in the direction of motion of drive. e. g. torques
due to friction, due to shear and deformation of inelastic bodies
Type of Loads (Cont.)
• It is a passive load to the motor.
• Load torque is independent of the

speed of the motor.
• Characterized by the requirement

of an extra torque at very near
zero speed.
• It is also known as break away

torque or stiction.
• Torque is directly proportional

to the speed.
• Calendaring machines, eddy

current brakes and separately
excited dc generators feeding
fixed resistance loads have such
characteristics.
Viscous Friction Load

• Load torque magnitude is proportional

to some power of speed.
• Centrifugal pumps, propeller in ships or

aeroplanes, fan or blower type of load
has such characteristics.
• For fan,
Fan type Load

Types of Load (Cont.)
• Hyperbolic speed-torque
characteristics, where load
torque is inversely
proportional to speed or
load power is constant.
Certain type of lathes,
boring machines, milling
machines, steel mill coilers
etc are having this type of
load characteristics.
Constant Power Load

• Load torques that vary with time
Load variation with time can be periodic and repetitive in certain
applications.
• One cycle of the load variation is called a duty cycle.
• The variation of load torque with time has a greater importance in

the selection of a suitable motor.
Classification of loads that vary with time:
(a) Continuous, constant loads: Centrifugal pumps or fans operating
for a long time under the same conditions, paper making machines
etc.
(b) Continuous, variable loads: Metal cutting lathes, hoisting
winches, conveyors etc.
• (c) Pulsating loads: Reciprocating pumps and compressors, frame
saws, textile looms and generally all machines having crank shaft.
(d) Impact loads: Apparent, regular and repetitive load peaks or
pulses which occurs in rolling mills, presses, shearing machines,
forging hammers etc. Drives for such machines will have heavy fly
wheels.
(e) Short time intermittent loads: Almost all forms of cranes and
hoisting mechanisms, excavators, roll trains etc.
(f) Short time loads: Motor generator sets for charging batteries,
servo motors used for remote control of clamping rods of drilling
machines.
Loads of the machines like stone crushers and ball mills are
characterized by frequent impact of small peaks so they are
classified as continuous variable loads rather than the impact loads
• One and the same machine can be represented by a load
torque which either varies with the speed or with the time.
• For example, a fan load whose load torque is proportional to

the square of the speed, is also a continuous, constant load.
• Load torque of a crane is independent of the speed and also

short time intermittent nature.
• Rocking pumps for petroleum have a load which vary with

angular position of the shaft, but also be classified as a
pulsating load.
Type of Load (Cont.
High speed Hoist Traction Load
(Constant torque; but with viscous friction)

Power requirement for different
Loads
• Mine Hoist Polishing

Machine
Loads (Cont.)
• Sheering machine for cutting Textile loom

Loads (Cont.)
• Planing Machine
Loads (Cont.)
• Drilling Machine Grinding

Machine
Dynamics of Motor-Load
Combination
• The motor and the load that it drives are
represented by the rotational system.
• The basic equation of the motor-load system

is,
Dynamics of Motor-Load Combination
• where is motor and load torque respectively in Nm, J is
• the moment of inertia and is the angular velocity in rad/sec.
• Motor torque is the applied torque and load torque is the resisting torque.
• Different states at which an electric drive causing rotational motion are

(i) :- The drive will be accelerating, in particular,
picking up speed to reach rated speed.

(ii) :- The drive will be decelerating and particularly, coming
to rest.
(iii) :- The motor will continue to run at the same speed, if it
were running or continue to be at rest, if it were running.

Quadrant diagram of Speed-Torque
Characteristics
• The speed is assumed to be positive if the direction of
rotation is anticlockwise or in such a way to cause an
‘upward’ or forward motion of the drive. For reversible drive
positive direction of the speed can be assumed arbitrarily
either clockwise or anticlockwise.
• The motor torque is positive if it produces increase in speed

in the positive sense. The load torque is assigned the
positive sign when it is directed against the motor torque.
• Plot of speed torque characteristics of the load/ motor for all

four quadrant of operation is known as quadrantal diagram.
FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION
Four Quadrant Operation
• Motor is driving a hoist consisting of a cage with or without load, a rope wound on to
a drum to hoist the cage and a balance weight of magnitude greater than that of the
empty cage but less than that of the loaded cage.
• The arrow in the figure indicates the actual directions of the motor torque, load torque
and motion in four quadrants.
• The load torque of the hoisting mechanism is of active type and assumed to be
constant due to negligible friction and windage for low speed hoist.
• Speed torque curve of the hoist is represented by vertical line passing through two
quadrants. Loaded hoist characteristics in first and fourth and unloaded in second
and third quadrants.
• In the first quadrant the load torque acts in the opposite direction to that of rotation.
Hence to drive the loaded hoist up, the motor developed torque must be in the
direction of the rotation or must be positive. The power will also be positive so, this
quadrant is known as ‘forward motoring quadrant’.
Four Quadrant Operation (Cont.)
•
Speed torque curve of the hoist is represented by vertical line passing through two quadrants.
Loaded hoist characteristics in first and fourth and unloaded in second and third quadrants.
• In the first quadrant the load torque acts in the opposite direction to that of rotation. Hence to drive
the loaded hoist up, the motor developed torque must be in the direction of the rotation or must be
positive. The power will also be positive so, this quadrant is known as ‘forward motoring quadrant’.
• The hoisting up of the unloaded cage is represented in the second quadrant. As the counterweight is
heavier than the empty cage, the speed at which hoist moves upwards may reach a very high value.
To avoid this, the motor torque must act in the opposite direction of rotation or motor torque must be
negative. The power will be negative though the speed is positive, so this quadrant is known as
‘forward braking quadrant’.
• The third quadrant represents the downward motion of the empty cage. Downward journey will be
opposed by torque due to counterweight and friction at the transmitting parts, move cage downwards
the motor torque should must be in the direction of the rotation. Electric machine acts as a motor but
in the reverse direction compared to first quadrant. The torque is negative as speed is increased I the
negative direction, but the power is positive, this quadrant is known as ‘Reverse motoring
quadrant’.
Four Quadrant Operation (Cont.)
• Fourth quadrant has the downward motion

of the loaded cage. As loaded cage has
more weight than the balanced weight to
limit the speed of the motion, motor torque
must have opposite polarity with respect to
rotation and acts as a brake. The motor
torque sign is positive, but as speed has
negative direction; the power will be
negative, this quadrant is designated as
‘Reverse braking quadrant’
Torque-speed quadrant of operation
2 1
T -ve T +ve
 +ve  +ve
Pm -ve Pm +ve
3 4
T -ve T +ve
 -ve  -ve
Pm +ve Pm -ve
4-quadrant operation
 Te
• Direction of positive (forward)
speed is arbitrary chosen
m m
Te • Direction of positive torque will
produce positive (forward) speed
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
Forward braking Forward motoring
T
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
Reverse motoring Reverse braking Te
Te
m m
Ratings of converters and motors
Torque
Transient Power limit for

torque limit transient torque
Continuous
torque limit Power limit for
continuous torque
Maximum
speed limit
Speed
Steady State Stability of an
Electric Drive
• The drive is said to be in equilibrium if the torque developed by the motor is exactly equal
to the load torque.
• If the drive comes out of the state of equilibrium due to some disturbance, it comes back to
steady state for stable equilibrium but for unstable equilibrium the speed of the drive
increases uncontrollably or decreases to zero. When the drive coming out of the state of
equilibrium preserves it steady state at different speed (lying in small range), it is said to be
in neutral range.
• The stability of the motor load combination is defined as the capacity of the system which
enables it to develop forces of such a nature as to restore equilibrium after any small
departure therefore.
• Equilibrium state of the drive mainly disturbs because of the following two types of
disturbances,
1.Changes from the state of equilibrium takes place slowly and the effect of either the
inertia or the inductance is insignificant – Steady state stability.
2.Sudden and fast changes from the equilibrium state so effect of both inertia and
inductance can not be neglected- Dynamic or transient stability
Electric Drive (Cont.)
• Criteria for steady state stability:-
• Let the equilibrium of the torques and

speed is and the small deviations
are After the displacement from the
equilibrium state the torque equation
becomes,
• Considering the small deviation, changes can be
expressed as a linear function of change in speed,
• From the torque equation, where all quantities are

expressed in terms of their deviations from the
equilibrium,
• Solution is,
• Where, is the initial value of the deviation

in speed. For the stable system the exponent must
be negative, so speed increment will disappear
with time. The exponent will always be negative if,
• Criteria for the steady state stability
is for a decrease in the speed the
motor torque must exceeds the
load torque and for increase in
speed the motor torque must be
less than the load torque.
• Load torque results in a

stable equilibrium point, and the
load torque results in an
unstable situation.
• To check the stability at an operating point of
the motor, if an increase in speed brings
greater increase in load torque than the motor
torque, the speed will tend to decrease and
return to its original value, so operating point
will be a stable point else operating point will be
an unstable point.
• Cases (a), (b) and (c) represents stable

operation of drive.
• Cases (d), (e) and (f) represents unstable

operation of drive.
Various Speed and
Torque Curves of Motor • Case (g) represents indeterminate condition.
and Load
Steady-state stability
V.MOHAN HOD/EEE EGSPEC 70
CURRENT SENSOR

CLOSED LOOP SPEED CONTROL USING PLL


SSD Unit 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

SSD Unit 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EE 1403 - SOLID STATE DRIVES

UNIT 1 - Fundamentals of Electric Drives

Drives are systems employed for motion control

Require prime movers

Drives that employ electric motors as

• About 50% of electrical energy used for drives

• Can be either used for fixed speed or variable speed

Constant speed Variable Speed Drives

Power Power out

Constant speed Variable Speed Drives

Power Power out

Constant speed Variable Speed Drives

Power Power out

Components in electric drives

Extracted from Boldea & Nasar

Overview of AC and DC drives

DC motors: Regular maintenance, heavy, expensive, speed limit

AC motors: Less maintenance, light, less expensive, high speed

Overview of AC and DC drives

Before semiconductor devices were introduced (<1950)

After semiconductor devices were introduced (1950s)

• High performance applications dominated by DC motors –

Overview of AC and DC drives

After vector control drives were introduced (1980s)

• Cost of microprocessor/semiconductors decreasing –predicted

Motor steady state torque-speed characteristic

Separately / shunt DC mch

By using power electronic converters, the motor

Load steady state torque-speed characteristic

• Exists when there is motion

Friction due to turbulent flow

Load steady state torque-speed characteristic

Load steady state torque-speed characteristic

Load and motor steady state torque

At constant speed, Te= Tl

r3 r1r r2 Speed

Unavoidable power losses causes temperature increase

Motors must be operated within the allowable maximum temperature

Sources of power losses (hence temperature increase):

Electrical machines can be overloaded as long their temperature

Accurate prediction of temperature distribution in machines is

Simplified assuming machine as homogeneous body

Input heat power

Heat transfer by convection:

p 2  A (T  To ) , where  is the coefficient of heat transfer

With T(0) = 0 and p1 = ph = constant ,

The duration of overloading depends on the modes of operation:

Short time intermittent duty

T p1n A1  eA1n 1s

Periodic intermittent duty

Load cycles are repeated periodically

Motors are not allowed to completely cooled

Fluctuations in temperature until steady state temperature is reached

Periodic intermittent duty

Periodic intermittent duty

Example of a simple case – p1 rectangular periodic pattern

pn = 100kW, nominal power

If we assume motor is solid iron of specific heat c FE=0.48 kWs/kgoC,

C = cFE M = 0.48 (800) = 384 kWs/oC

Finally , thermal time constant = 384000/180 = 35 minutes

Periodic intermittent duty

Example of a simple case – p1 rectangular periodic pattern

• Load torque can be of two types