Chapter No.

Transport Layer Services

 Topics
 Transport Services,
 Elements of Transport Protocols,
 Connection Management,
 TCP and UDP Protocols
TRANSPORT LAYER
• The transport layer is a 4th layer from the top.
• The main role of the transport layer is to provide
the communication services directly to the
application processes running on different hosts.
• The transport layer provides a logical
communication between application processes
running on different hosts.
• Although the application processes on different
hosts are not physically connected, application
processes use the logical communication provided
by the transport layer to send the messages to each
other.
TRANSPORT LAYER
• The transport layer protocols are implemented in
the end systems but not in the network routers.
• A computer network provides more than one
protocol to the network applications. For example,
TCP and UDP are two transport layer protocols
that provide a different set of services to the
network layer.
• All transport layer protocols provide
multiplexing/demultiplexing service.
• It also provides other services such as reliable data
transfer, bandwidth guarantees, and delay
guarantees
TRANSPORT LAYER
• Each of the applications in the application layer
has the ability to send a message by using TCP or
UDP.
• The application communicates by using either of
these two protocols. Both TCP and UDP will then
communicate with the internet protocol in the
internet layer.
• The applications can read and write to the
transport layer. Therefore, we can say that
communication is a two-way process.
TRANSPORT LAYER
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
• The services provided by the transport layer are
similar to those of the data link layer.
• The data link layer provides the services within a
single network while the transport layer provides
the services across an internetwork made up of
many networks.
• The data link layer controls the physical layer
while the transport layer controls all the lower
layers.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
The services provided by the transport layer
protocols can be divided into five categories:
• End-to-end delivery
• Addressing
• Reliable delivery
• Flow control
• Multiplexing
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(1) END-TO-END DELIVERY:
The transport layer transmits the entire message to the
destination. Therefore, it ensures the end-to-end
delivery of an entire message from a source to the
destination.
(2)RELIABLE DELIVERY:
The transport layer provides reliability services by
retransmitting the lost and damaged packets.
• The reliable delivery has four aspects:
• Error control
• Sequence control
• Loss control
• Duplication control
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(A) Error Control
• The primary role of reliability is Error Control. In
reality, no transmission will be 100 percent error-
free delivery. Therefore, transport layer protocols
are designed to provide error-free transmission.
• The data link layer also provides the error handling
mechanism, but it ensures only node-to-node error-
free delivery. However, node-to-node reliability
does not ensure the end-to-end reliability.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(A)Error Control
• The data link layer checks for the error between
each network.
• If an error is introduced inside one of the routers,
then this error will not be caught by the data link
layer.
• It only detects those errors that have been
introduced between the beginning and end of the
link.
• Therefore, the transport layer performs the
checking for the errors end-to-end to ensure that
the packet has arrived correctly.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(A)Error Control
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER

(B)Sequence Control
• The second aspect of the reliability is sequence
control which is implemented at the transport
layer.
• On the sending end, the transport layer is
responsible for ensuring that the packets
received from the upper layers can be used by
the lower layers.
• On the receiving end, it ensures that the various
segments of a transmission can be correctly
reassembled.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(C)Loss Control
• Loss Control is a third aspect of reliability. The
transport layer ensures that all the fragments of a
transmission arrive at the destination, not some of
them.
• On the sending end, all the fragments of
transmission are given sequence numbers by a
transport layer.
• These sequence numbers allow the receivers
transport layer to identify the missing segment.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(D)Duplication Control

• Duplication Control is the fourth aspect of

reliability. The transport layer guarantees that no
duplicate data arrive at the destination.

• Sequence numbers are used to identify the lost

packets; similarly, it allows the receiver to identify
and discard duplicate segments.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(3)Flow Control
• Flow control is used to prevent the sender from
overwhelming the receiver.
• If the receiver is overloaded with too much data, then
the receiver discards the packets and asking for the
retransmission of packets. This increases network
congestion and thus, reducing the system performance.
• The transport layer is responsible for flow control. It
uses the sliding window protocol that makes the data
transmission more efficient as well as it controls the
flow of data so that the receiver does not become
overwhelmed.
• Sliding window protocol is byte oriented rather than
frame oriented.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(4)Multiplexing
• The transport layer uses the multiplexing to
improve transmission efficiency. The technique to
combine two or more data streams in one session is
called Multiplexing.
• When a TCP client initializes a connection with
Server, it always refers to a well-defined port
number which indicates the application process.
• The client itself uses a randomly generated port
number from private port number pools.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(4)Multiplexing
• Using TCP Multiplexing, a client can communicate
with a number of different application process in a
single session.
• For example, a client requests a web page which in
turn contains different types of data (HTTP, SMTP,
FTP etc.) the TCP session timeout is increased and
the session is kept open for longer time so that the
three-way handshake overhead can be avoided.
• This enables the client system to receive multiple
connection over single virtual connection.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(4)Multiplexing
Multiplexing can occur in two ways:
Upward Multiplexing:
• Upward multiplexing means multiple transport
layer connections use the same network
connection.
• To make more cost-effective, the transport layer
sends several transmissions bound for the same
destination along the same path; this is achieved
through upward multiplexing.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
Upward Multiplexing:
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
Downward Multiplexing:

• Downward multiplexing means one transport layer

connection uses the multiple network connections.
• Downward multiplexing allows the transport layer
to split a connection among several paths to
improve the throughput.
• This type of multiplexing is used when networks
have a low or slow capacity.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
Downward Multiplexing:

.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(5)ADDRESSING
• A Transport Services Access Point (TSAP) is an
end-point for communication between the
Transport layer (layer 4) and the Session layer in
the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference
model.
• Each TSAP is an address that uniquely identifies a
specific instantiation of a service.
• TSAPs are created by concatenating the node's
Network Service Access Point (NSAP) with a
transport identifier, and sometimes a packet and/or
protocol type. ( TSAP =“NSAP+Port No”)
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(5)ADDRESSING
TCP communication between two remote hosts is
done by means of port numbers (TSAPs). Ports
numbers can range from 0 – 65535 which are divided
as:
• System Ports (0 – 1023)
• User Ports ( 1024 – 49151)
• Private/Dynamic Ports (49152 – 65535)

.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(5)ADDRESSING
• According to the layered model, the transport layer
interacts with the functions of the session layer.
• Many protocols combine session, presentation, and
application layer protocols into a single layer
known as the application layer.
• In these cases, delivery to the session layer means
the delivery to the application layer. Data generated
by an application on one machine must be
transmitted to the correct application on another
machine.
• In this case, addressing is provided by the
transport layer.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(5)ADDRESSING
• The transport layer provides the user address which
is specified as a station or port. The port variable
represents a particular TS user of a specified station
known as a Transport Service access point (TSAP).
• Each station has only one transport entity.

.
SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE TRANSPORT LAYER
(5)ADDRESSING

• The transport layer protocols need to know which

upper-layer protocols are communicating.
 TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS
• The transport layer is represented by two protocols:
TCP and UDP.
• The IP protocol in the network layer delivers a
datagram from a source host to the destination host.
• The operating system supports multiuser and
multiprocessing environments, an executing
program is called a process.
• When a host sends a message to other host means
that source process is sending a process to a
destination process.
 TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS
• An IP protocol is a host-to-host protocol used to
deliver a packet from source host to the destination
host .
• Transport layer protocols are port-to-port protocols
that work on the top of the IP protocols to deliver
the packet from the originating port to the IP
services, and from IP services to the destination
port.
 TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS
Each port is defined by a positive integer address,
and it is of 16 bits.
 USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)
• The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is simplest
Transport Layer communication protocol .
• It involves minimum amount of communication
mechanism.
• UDP is said to be an unreliable transport protocol but it
uses IP services which provides best effort delivery
mechanism.
• In UDP, the receiver does not generate an
acknowledgement of packet received and in turn, the
sender does not wait for any acknowledgement of
packet sent.
• This shortcoming makes this protocol unreliable as
well as easier on processing.
 Requirement of UDP
•We deploy UDP where the acknowledgement packets
share significant amount of bandwidth along with the
actual data.
• For example, in case of video streaming, thousands of
packets are forwarded towards its users. Acknowledging
all the packets is troublesome and may contain huge
amount of bandwidth wastage.
•The best delivery mechanism of underlying IP protocol
ensures best efforts to deliver its packets, but even if some
packets in video streaming get lost, the impact is not
disastrous and can be ignored easily.
• Loss of few packets in video and voice traffic sometimes
goes unnoticed.
 UDP FEATURES
• UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol.
• UDP is a simple protocol and it provides non-
sequenced transport functionality.
• UDP is a connectionless protocol.
• This type of protocol is used when reliability and
security are less important than speed and size.
• UDP is an end-to-end transport level protocol that
adds transport-level addresses, checksum error
control, and length information to the data from the
upper layer.
• The packet produced by the UDP protocol is known
as a user datagram.
 USER DATAGRAM FORMAT
The user datagram has a 16-byte header which is
shown below:
 USER DATAGRAM FORMAT
• Source port address: It defines the address of the
application process that has delivered a message.
The source port address is of 16 bits address.
• Destination port address: It defines the address of
the application process that will receive the
message. The destination port address is of a 16-bit
address.
• Total length: It defines the total length of the user
datagram in bytes. It is a 16-bit field.
• Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field which is
used in error detection.
 Disadvantages of UDP Protocol
• UDP provides basic functions needed for the
end-to-end delivery of a transmission.
• It does not provide any sequencing or reordering
functions and does not specify the damaged
packet when reporting an error.
• UDP can discover that an error has occurred, but
it does not specify which packet has been lost as
it does not contain an ID or sequencing number
of a particular data segment.
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP)
TCP is one of the most important protocols of Internet
Protocols suite. It is most widely used protocol for
data transmission in communication network such as
internet.
• TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol.
• It provides full transport layer services to
applications.
• It is a connection-oriented protocol means the
connection established between both the ends of the
transmission.
• For creating the connection, TCP generates a virtual
circuit between sender and receiver for the duration
of a transmission.
 TCP FEATURES
• TCP is reliable protocol. That is, the receiver always
sends either positive or negative acknowledgement
about the data packet to the sender, so that the
sender always has bright clue about whether the
data packet is reached the destination or it needs to
resend it.
• TCP ensures that the data reaches intended
destination in the same order it was sent.
• TCP is connection oriented. TCP requires that
connection between two remote points be
established before sending actual data.
 TCP FEATURES

• TCP provides error-checking and recovery

mechanism.
• TCP provides end-to-end communication.
• TCP provides flow control and quality of service.
• TCP operates in Client/Server point-to-point mode.
• TCP provides full duplex server, i.e. it can perform
roles of both receiver and sender. (3 way
handshaking )
 TCP HEADER

The length of TCP header is minimum 20 bytes long

and maximum 60 bytes.
 TCP HEADER

• Source Port (16-bits) - It identifies source port of

the application process on the sending device.
• Destination Port (16-bits) - It identifies destination
port of the application process on the receiving
device.
• Sequence Number (32-bits) - Sequence number of
data bytes of a segment in a session.
• Acknowledgement Number (32-bits) - When ACK
flag is set, this number contains the next sequence
number of the data byte expected and works as
acknowledgement of the previous data received.
 TCP HEADER

• Data Offset (4-bits) - This field implies both, the

size of TCP header (32-bit words) and the offset of
data in current packet in the whole TCP segment.
• Reserved (3-bits) - Reserved for future use and all
are set zero by default.
• Flags (1-bit each)
o NS - Nonce Sum bit is used by Explicit
Congestion Notification(ECN) signaling process.
o CWR - When a host receives packet with ECE
bit set, it sets Congestion Windows Reduced to
acknowledge that ECE received.
 TCP HEADER

• Flags (1-bit each)

oECE (ECN Echo) -It has two meanings:
 If SYN bit is clear to 0, then ECE means that the
IP packet has its CE (congestion experience) bit
set.
 If SYN bit is set to 1, ECE means that the
device is ECT capable.
oURG - It indicates that Urgent Pointer field has
significant data and should be processed.
oACK - It indicates that Acknowledgement field has
significance. If ACK is cleared to 0, it indicates
that packet does not contain any acknowledgement.
 TCP HEADER

.
 TCP HEADER
• Flags (1-bit each)
oPSH - When set, it is a request to the receiving station
to PUSH data (as soon as it comes) to the receiving
application without buffering it.
oRST - Reset flag has the following features:
 It is used to refuse an incoming connection.
 It is used to reject a segment.
 It is used to restart a connection.
oSYN - This flag is used to set up a connection between
hosts.
oFIN - This flag is used to release a connection and no
more data is exchanged thereafter. Because packets
with SYN and FIN flags have sequence numbers, they
are processed in correct order.
 TCP HEADER
• Windows Size - This field is used for flow control
between two stations and indicates the amount of buffer
(in bytes) the receiver has allocated for a segment, i.e.
how much data is the receiver expecting.
• Checksum - This field contains the checksum of
Header and Data.
• Urgent Pointer - It points to the urgent data byte if
URG flag is set to 1.
 Differences b/w TCP & UDP
Basis for TCP UDP
Comparison
Definition TCP establishes a virtual UDP transmits the data
circuit before transmitting directly to the destination
the data. computer without verifying
whether the receiver is ready
to receive or not.

Connection It is a Connection-Oriented It is a Connectionless protocol

Type protocol

Speed slow high

Reliability It is a reliable protocol. It is an unreliable protocol.
Header size 20 bytes 8 bytes
Acknowledge It waits for the It neither takes the
ment acknowledgement of data acknowledgement, nor it
and has the ability to resend retransmits the damaged
the lost packets. frame.
 CONNECTION MANAGEMENT
• TCP communication works in Server/Client model. The
client initiates the connection and the server either
accepts or rejects it. Three-way handshaking is used for
connection management.

Client Server
 CONNECTION MANAGEMENT

•Establishment

• Client initiates the connection and sends the

segment with a Sequence number.
• Server acknowledges it back with its own
Sequence number and ACK of client’s segment
which is one more than client’s Sequence number.
(ACK+Client Seq No+ Server Seq No)
• Client after receiving ACK of its segment sends an
acknowledgement of Server’s response.
 CONNECTION MANAGEMENT

•Release

• Either of server and client can send TCP segment

with FIN flag set to 1.
• When the receiving end responds it back by
ACKnowledging FIN, that direction of TCP
communication is closed and connection is
released.
 BANDWIDTH MANAGEMENT

• TCP uses the concept of window size to

accommodate the need of Bandwidth
management.
• Window size tells the sender at the remote end,
the number of data byte segments the receiver
at this end can receive.
• TCP uses slow start phase by using window size
1 and increases the window size exponentially
after each successful communication.
 BANDWIDTH MANAGEMENT

• For example, the client uses windows size 2 and

sends 2 bytes of data. When the acknowledgement
of this segment received the windows size is
doubled to 4 and next sent the segment sent will be
4 data bytes long.
• Window Size(bytes) Data Size(bytes)
2 2
2x2=4 4
2x2x2=8 8
• If an acknowledgement is missed, i.e. data lost in
transit network or it received NACK, then the
window size is reduced to half and slow start phase
starts again.
 TIMER MANAGEMENT

TCP uses different types of timer to control and

management various tasks:

Keep-alive timer:
• This timer is used to check the integrity and validity
of a connection.
• When keep-alive time expires, the host sends a
probe to check if the connection still exists.
 TIMER MANAGEMENT

Retransmission timer:
• This timer maintains stateful session of data
sent.
• If the acknowledgement of sent data does not
receive within the Retransmission time, the data
segment is sent again.
 TIMER MANAGEMENT
Persist timer:
• TCP session can be paused by either host by
sending Window Size 0.
• To resume the session a host needs to send Window
Size with some larger value.
• If this segment never reaches the other end, both
ends may wait for each other for infinite time.
• When the Persist timer expires, the host re-sends its
window size to let the other end know.
• Persist Timer helps avoid deadlocks in
communication.
 TIMER MANAGEMENT
Timed-Wait:

• After releasing a connection, either of the hosts

waits for a Timed-Wait time to terminate the
connection completely.
• This is in order to make sure that the other end has
received the acknowledgement of its connection
termination request.
• Timed-out can be a maximum of 240 seconds
(4 minutes).
 CRASH RECOVERY

• TCP is very reliable protocol. It provides sequence

number to each of byte sent in segment.
• It provides the feedback mechanism i.e. when a
host receives a packet, it is bound to ACK that
packet having the next sequence number expected
(if it is not the last segment).
• When a TCP Server crashes mid-way
communication and re-starts its process it sends
Transportation-layer protocol data unit (TPDU)
broadcast to all its hosts.
• The hosts can then send the last data segment
which was never unacknowledged and carry
onwards.