1.electrical Distribution Systems Unit I

ADITYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE (A)
Electrical Distribution Systems

By
Ch.B.A.Raju
Aditya Engineering College (A)
Introduction to Distribution System

• Electricity is the most utilized and useful form of energy in the modern
societies.
• The present social infrastructure would not at all be feasible.
• The increasing per capita consumption of electricity throughout the world
reflects a growing standard of living of the people.
• In India, phenomenal expansion has taken place in the area of power
systems since last five decades.
• The development of transmission network has also closely followed the
growth of generation.
• Starting with a meager transmission network, with 132 kV as the highest
transmission voltage at the time of independence,
Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

• Today besides HVDC lines, we have 765kV as the highest
transmission voltage level, five regional grids under operation and
formation of a national grid inter connecting all the regional grids is
under progress.
• State electricity Boards(SEB’s) more or less have been able to fulfill
the objectives of the Government in terms of expanding the electricity
networks to rural areas.
• 13 states have declared 100% electrification of feasible villages.
• However, despite impressive growth the presently available sub
transmission and distribution network is not adequate to deliver the
power to the ultimate consumers with reliability and power quality.

• The transmission and distribution losses in many of the developing
and the developed countries are of the order of 6 to 40%.
• The T&D losses in the transmission and distribution systems state
wise in India is 22%, a very high percentage as against 6 to 11% in the
developed countries like USA , France, Sweden, Japan, etc..
• the higher transmission and distribution losses are mainly due to
illegal extractions, under billing and metering errors.
• Some of the causes of energy losses in India are long length of LV
lines, too many voltage transformations, over/under loading of
transformations, improper maintenance of equipment quality, loose
joints, lack of maintenance of lines, inadequate control of system
operation, adhoc sizing and routing of lines, etc


• In India, the reliability and quality of power at the end user is degraded because
of frequent scheduled and unscheduled power cuts, erratic voltage and
frequency variations.
• These problems may be due to over loading of distribution equipment,
adopting to break down maintenance rather then preventive maintence, poor
planning , ageing of sub transmission and distribution network, large scale
theft, Skewed tariff structure, lack in technological upgradations, lack of
accountability in distribution systems etc..
• Therefore improving the distribution network will fetch more benefits.
• Saving of 1 unit in distribution network will save 5Kg of primary fuel(coal).
• Reduction of technical transmission and distribution losses to below 15% will
release energy equivalent to an additional capacity of 10,000 to 12,000 MW
with lower investment compared to establishing new power plants.
How does power reach to us?

• Electric power is normally generated at 11-25kV in a power station.
• To transmit over a long distance, it is stepped-up to 132kV, 220kV or 400kV
as necessary.
• Power is carried through a transmission network of high voltage lines.
Usually, these lines run into hundreds of kilometers and deliver the power
into a common power pool called grid.
• The grid is connected to load centers through a sub-transmission network of
normally 33kV lines. These lines terminate into a 33 kV substation, where
the voltage is stepped-down to 11kV for power distribution to load points
through a distribution network of lines at 11 kV and lower.


• At load points, a transformer further reduces the voltage from 11kV to 415
kV to provide the last-mile connection through 415 V feeders to individual
customers, either at 240 V or at 415 V.
• A feeder could be either and overhead line or an underground cable.
• In urban areas, owing to the density of customers, the length of an 11kV
feeder is generally up to 3km.
• In rural areas, the feeder length is much larger(up to 20 km).
• A 415 V feeder should normally be restricted to about 0.5- 1.0 km unduly
feeders lead to low voltage at the consumer end.


Characteristics of Present Distribution System

• These are the following characterizes the existing distribution system
• Development of distribution system dominated by radial networks.
• Difficulties in augmentation/maintenance of system.
• Difficulties in voltages regulation.
• Inadequacy in system.
• Development of long LT lines.
• Absence of proper energy accounting system/audit.
• Poor quality of equipment and lack of proper maintenance, accounts for
the high level of technical losses at the distribution stage.
• In addition to above, distribution system is also suffering from high level
of commercial losses due to poor billing , revenue collection and theft of
power by various users.
Distribution System losses

• It has been established that 70% of the total losses are occurring in the
primary and secondary distribution system, while transmission and
submission lines account for only 30 % of the total losses.
• Distribution losses are 15.5% of generation capacity and the target level is
7.5%.
• Therefore the primary and secondary distribution system must be properly
planed to ensure losses within the acceptability limits.

Factors Effecting Distributing System Losses

• Factors contributing to the increase in the line losses in the primary and
secondary distribution system are:
• Inadequate size of conductor.

• Feeder length.
• Location of distribution transformers.
• Low voltage.
• Use of over rated distribution transformers.
• Low Power factor.

Methods for the Reduction of line losses

• The losses in Indian power system are on the higher side, the government of
India has decided to reduce the line losses and set a target for reduction of
T&D losses by 1% per annum in order to realize an overall reduction of 5%
in the national average by the end of 8th five year plan.
• The following methods are adopted for reduction of distribution system
losses.
• (i) HV distribution system
• (ii) Feeder reconfiguration
• (iii) Reinforcement of the feeder.
• (iv) Grading of conductor.
• (v) Construction of new substation
• (vi) Reactive power compensation

Distribution System Planning

• Planning of distribution system is necessary to ensure that the growing
demand of electricity can be met by expansion, which should be both
technically adequate and reasonably economical.
• The aim of planning should ensure the growing demand for electricity in
terms of increasing growth rate and high load densities which has to be done
in an optimum way by additional sub-systems.
• Distribution system planners must determine the capacity of load and its
geographic location.
• The distribution substations must be located and should be designed in such
a way as to serve the load at optimum.

Distribution System Planning

• The distribution system is particularly important to an electrical utility for
two reasons:
• 1. its close proximity to the customer
• 2. its high cost of investment.
• The demand, type, load factor, and other consumer load characteristics
necessitate the type of distribution system required.
• Once the consumer loads are found, they are grouped for service from
secondary lines connected to distribution transformers that step down from
primary voltage.
• Thus the planner of the distribution system has to divide the problem into a
set of sub problems.

Factors Affecting Distribution system planning

• The main objective of distribution system planning is to meet the power
demand of the customer at given level of reliability at the minimum cost.
• Load Forecasting
• Purpose of load forecasting
• i) for proper planning of power system
• ii) for proper planning of transmission and distribution facilities
• iii) for proper power system operation.
• iv) for proper financing.
• v) for proper manpower development.
• vi) for proper grid formation.
• vii) for proper energy sales.
Factors Affecting Distribution system planning

• Classification of load forecasting
The load forecasting can be classified as
a) Demand forecast.
This is used to determine the capacity of the generation, transmission and distribution system
additions. future demand can be predicted on the basis of fast rate of growth of demand from past
history and government policy.
b) Energy forecast.
this is used to determine the type of facilities required i.e. future fuel requirements.
c) Forecasting procedure.
Depending on the time period of interest, a specific forecasting procedure may be classified as a
a) Short term. ( day to day operations)
b) Medium term. (one month to one year)
c) Long term.(this is done for 1-5 years )

Recent load Forecasting Methods

• The various techniques of recent origin are
• Multiple linear regression method (MLR)
• Stochastic time series method (STS).
• General Exponential Smoothing(GES)
• State Space and Kalman Filter techniques.
• Knowledge based expert system approach.
• Artificial Neural Network based approach.


Definitions
• Connected Load
• The aggregate capacity of all electric drives(lamps, appliances, equipments etc.)
connected by consumer to the supply systems is called connected load.
• Demand Factor
• It is defined as the ratio to the maximum demand of a system to the total connected
load of the system.
• It is usually less than 1.0, because maximum demand is generally less than the
connected load.

Definitions
• Load Factor
• The ratio of average load of the maximum demand during a
given period is known as load factor.
• If the plant is in operation for a period T
• the load factor may be daily load factor, monthly load factor or
annual load factor, if the time period considered in a day or a
month or a year respectively.

• Diversity Factor
• The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand on
power system is known as diversity factor.
• A power system supplies load to various types of consumers whose

maximum demands generally do not occur at the same time. Therefore,
the maximum demand on the power system is always less than the sum
of individual maximum demands of the consumers.
• Diversity factor is always greater than one.
• Coincidence Factor
• It is the ratio of the observed peak of the group of consumers to the sum of the
individual peaks.

• Utilization Factor
• The utilization factor is the ratio of maximum demand of a system to the rated capacity of the
system.
• Loss Factor
• It is defined as the ratio of the average power losses over a specified period of time to the peak
loss during the same period.
• While it is relatively easy to determine load factor, it is difficult to determine loss factor
because average system losses cannot be easily determined.
• Power Factor
The ratio of power(in watts) to the product of voltage and current(in volt amperes ) is called the
power factor.
• Plant capacity factor:

It is the ratio of the average annual load to the power plant capacity
during given period.
plant capacity factor = Average annual load/plant rated capacity
= energy produced in a year/plant rated capacity*8760
= (Maximum load/Plant capacity)* load factor

• Plant Use factor:

• It is the ratio of the actual energy produced to the multiplication of
plant capacity and time (hours) of the plant operation.
plant use factor=actual energy produced/(plant capacity*plant
operation time in hours)

• Reserves
• Spinning reserve
• Cold reserve
• Hot reserve
• Firm power
• Reserve margin

• Load curve and load duration curve

• Mass curve

• Integrated load duration curve

Relationship between the load and loss factor

• The loss factor cannot be found from the load factor. However, the
limiting values of the relationship can be found.

Relationship between the load and loss factor

Where PLs,avg the average power loss, PLS,max is the maximum power loss, and PLS,2 is the peak loss at peak
load.
Substituting
Where PLs,avg the average power loss, PLS,max is the maximum power loss, and PLS,2 is the peak loss at peak load.
Where PLS,1 is the off-peak loss at off-peak load, t is the peak load duration, and T - t i s the off-peak load
duration.
The copper losses are the function of the associated loads. Therefore, the off-peak and peak loads can be
expressed, respectively, as

Where k is a constant.
the loss factor can be expressed as





However, Buller and Woodrow developed an approximate formula to relate the loss
factor to the load factor as
Where FLS is the loss factor (pu) and FLD is the load factor (pu).

Load Characteristics
Nature of Loads
• It is necessary to know the general nature of load, which is characterized by
the demand factor, load factor, diversity factor, utilization factor and power
factor.
System power factor

• All electrical equipment ,except synchronous motors, resistance heaters and
incandescent lamps, consume power at lagging power factor.


• System load diversity

• For better management, it is important to analyse statistically the
summer and winter load diversity in an area.
• Feeder load characteristics

• The load characteristics of a distribution feeder at the substation bus is
important in terms of its load composition and its electrical
characteristics.
• The percentage load of each category in the total demand is dependent
on the time of a year, time of the day , geographical location.

• System load
• The characteristic of electric load itself changes as a function of the
number of consumers.
• As the number o consumers in a group or a system is increased, the
contribution of the group or the system peak of each consumer is
decreased and the high rate of fluctuations decrease.

Types of Loads
• In general, the types of load can be divided into the following categories
i) Domestic Loads.
ii) Commercial Loads.
iii) Industrial Loads.
iv) Municipal Loads.
v) Agriculture Loads.
Other loads

Domestic Loads
• This type of loads mainly consists of domestic appliances such as
lights, fans, heaters, refrigerators, air conditioners, mixers, ovens,
heating ranges and small motors for pumping, various other small
house hold appliances, etc.
• The daily load curve(DLC) of week days of this type of load in terms of
peak load.
• The various factors are:
Demand factor:70-100%
Diversity factor 1.2-1.3
Load Factor 10-15%

Domestic Loads

Commercial Loads
• Commercial loads consist of lighting for shops, fans, air conditioning,
heating and other electrical appliances used in commercial
establishments, such as shops, restaurants, market places, etc.
Demand factor :90-100%
Diversity factor: 1.1-1.2
Load factor : 25-30%

Commercial Loads

Industrial Loads
• This type of loads may be subdivided into small medium and heavy
depending on the power range required. Small scale industries
require load up to 25kW, medium scale industries between 25 to 100
kW, and heavy industries required load more than 500kW.
Demand factor:85-90%
Load factor: 70-80%

Industrial Loads

Municipal Loads
• Municipal load consists of street lighting, power requirement for
water supply and drainage purposes. This load is for street lighting
and remains practically constant throughout the night.
• For this the demand factor is 100% while the diversity factor can be
taken as 1.
• The load factor for streetlight is usually taken as 25-30%.

Agriculture Loads
• The electric power needed for pumps driven by motors to supply water
to field.
• The load factor is generally taken as 20-25%, diversity factor as 1.0-
1.5 and demand factor is 90-100%.

Other loads
Apart from the above mentioned loads, there are other loads such as
bulk supplies, special industries such as paper, textile. Etc. and
traction and government loads which have their own peculiar
characteristics.

• Load window for load modelling

• Load window concept for feeder load modelling

Construction of load window

It is based on the load data available like
Maximum demand of a certain component of load
The duration over which it is spread
Its diversity
Its component part in the total load as a percentage
Its operation like full load, load, and p.f at which it operators.

• Load models for 3-phase ,3 wire and 4 wire system





• Calculate the reserve capacity of a generating station, which has a

maximum demand of 20,000 KW, the annual load factor is 65%, and
the capacity factor is 45%.

• A power station is to feed four regions of load whose peak loads are 12, 7, 10
and 8 MW. The diversity factor at the station is 1.4 and the average annual load
factor is 65 %. Determine the following:
(i) Maximum demand on the station
(ii) Annual energy supplied by the station
(iii) Suggest the installed capacity



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ADITYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE (A)

Electrical Distribution Systems

Introduction to Distribution System

Introduction to Distribution System

Introduction to Distribution System

Introduction to Distribution System

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Introduction to Distribution System

How does power reach to us?

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

How does power reach to us?

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

How does power reach to us?

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Characteristics of Present Distribution System

Distribution System losses

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Factors Effecting Distributing System Losses

• Inadequate size of conductor.

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Methods for the Reduction of line losses

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Distribution System Planning

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Distribution System Planning

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Factors Affecting Distribution system planning

Factors Affecting Distribution system planning

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Recent load Forecasting Methods

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

• A power system supplies load to various types of consumers whose

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

• Plant capacity factor:

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

• Plant Use factor:

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

• Load curve and load duration curve

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

• Integrated load duration curve

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Relationship between the load and loss factor

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Relationship between the load and loss factor

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

System power factor

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023

• System load diversity

• Feeder load characteristics

Electrical Distribution Syatems Ch.B.A.Raju Thursday, November 16, 2023