AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

AIRCRAFT CONCEPTUAL LAYOUT

Of the seemingly countless tasks confronting the aircraft designer, one of the most important is the
determination of a suitable configuration.

Should it be a monoplane or a biplane; a single-engine or a multiengine;

an unmanned aircraft or one with 800 seats?
driven by a propeller or a turbofan?
If propeller-powered, should it be a pusher or a tractor?
What layout will truly best serve the mission of the airplane?
What about aesthetics?

Today’s aircraft designer has access to an enormous database of possible configurations.

Many of those have a long operational history that allows the designer to realistically evaluate
important pros and cons and predict their capabilities more accurately than possible before.

Some even argue that not many configurations remain to be invented. It is no exaggeration that
when it comes to issues like the positioning of wings, landing gear, and engines; or the shape and
size of stabilizing surfaces; and even aesthetics, the modern designer can practically go window-
shopping for ideas using this vast database.
Requirements, Mission, and Applicable Regulations

The design process begins by the execution of the

statement: “Understand requirements, mission definition,
and the implications of the regulations to which the airplane
will be certified.”

# The plane’s requirements simply mean that: how far, how

fast, how high, how heavy, how long a take-off and landing
distance etc, must the airplane be capable of.

# The airplane’s mission simply means what it is the

airplane is supposed to do.
A schematic showing photography and simple cruise
missions of the airplane

# Regulations refers to the airplane’s designer clearly

knowing which regulations the airplane will be designed to.
Aircraft component recognition
All aircraft feature many parts and components that are directly
exposed to airflow and affect not only the performance and operation of
the aircraft, but also the cost of manufacturing and maintenance.

The location of most of these components (e.g. Pitot tubes, static

sources, antennas, and others) is usually the consequence of hard work

The main components of an aircraft are: wings; fuselage; nacelle; empennage;

power plant; and landing gear, to name a few.

A fuselage is a structural body not intended to generate lift (although it

may) whose purpose is to contain engine, fuel, occupants, baggage, and
mission related equipment, although not always simultaneously.

An empennage refers to the horizontal and vertical tail of a conventional

aircraft configuration.

Nacelles usually carry an engine.

Nacelles can be mounted to a lifting surface, such as a wing, or to a non-
lifting geometry like a fuselage.
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE CONFIGURATION LAYOUT
Before starting the design of an airplane the novice designer should
familiarize him/herself with Table 4-2 , which shows typical dimensions
for some selected classes of aircraft.

Students of aircraft design who have yet to develop a keen sense for
dimensions and weights of airplanes are encouraged to study the table
in detail. This is not to say that a new design cannot be outside the
shown limits, but rather that most aircraft ever built fall somewhere
between the extremes cited. If the specifications of the new airplane fall
outside these limits, inadvertently, the table may encourage the designer
to take a second look at the numbers.
 Consequences of the vertical wing selection
Vertical wing location
Field of view

The high-wing configuration offers a great field-of

Factors need to be considered when deciding vertical wing location
view downward, whereas it may obstruct the pilot’s
view when banking (turning).

The opposite holds true for a low-wing

configuration. There is less downward visibility, but
superior field-of view in the direction of the turn.

On small airplanes, the shoulder wing configuration

improves visibility upward and downward, but
requires the wing to be swept forward
in order to ensure the center of gravity (CG) is

?
placed properly on the mean geometric chord
(MGC).
Vertical wing location Consequences of the vertical wing selection
Field of view

The high-wing configuration offers a great field-of

Factors need to be considered when deciding vertical wing location
view downward, whereas it may obstruct the pilot’s
view when banking (turning).

The opposite holds true for a low-wing

configuration. There is less downward visibility, but
superior field-of view in the direction of the turn.

On small airplanes, the shoulder wing configuration

improves visibility upward and downward, but
requires the wing to be swept forward
in order to ensure the center of gravity (CG) is
placed properly on the mean geometric chord
(MGC).
Wing configuration

The monoplane is by far the most common

configuration as it is without a doubt the easiest to
make aerodynamically efficient.

The primary advantage of the biplane or triplane

configuration is the large wing area that can be
packed in a small wingspan.

This allows for very maneuverable airplanes with

relatively low stalling speed without flaps.

The drawback of the configuration is the The difference between a sesquiplane and a biplane is the shorter
aerodynamic inefficiency that stems from placing span of the lower wing. This improves the efficiency of the outboard
the low-pressure region of the lower wing close part of the upper wing by enabling higher pressure to be generated
to the high pressure region of the upper wing. on its lower surface.

This reduces the production of lift, requiring

higher AOA to generate the same lift coefficient and,
consequently, higher lift-induced drag.
Wing structural configuration

•Cantilevered: self-supporting configuration. All the structure is buried under the

aerodynamic skin, giving a clean appearance with low drag.

•Braced: the wings are supported by external structural members. Nearly all
multi-plane designs are braced.

Both configurations have pros and cons:

Strut-braced having a higher drag than the cantilevered configuration.

The maximum shear and bending loads of the strut-braced wing are much less
than those of the cantilevered wing, resulting in a lighter wing structure.

If the aerodynamic efficiency is not a factor, strut-braced wing configuration

should be given consideration.
Wing structural configuration

•Cantilevered: self-supporting configuration. All the structure is buried under the

aerodynamic skin, giving a clean appearance with low drag.

•Braced: the wings are supported by external structural members. Nearly all
multi-plane designs are braced.

Both configurations have pros and cons:

Strut-braced having a higher drag than the cantilevered configuration.

The maximum shear and bending loads of the strut-braced wing are much less
than those of the cantilevered wing, resulting in a lighter wing structure.
When compared to the strut-braced and cantilever wing configurations, an equivalent strut-braced wing
If the aerodynamic efficiency is not a factor, strut-braced wing configuration
configuration is lighter than the cantilever wing. Why?
should be given consideration.
Cabin configurations

An advantage of the roofed cabin is

increased protection in the case of a
turnover accident, but it requires an entry
door.

The roof also limits the field-of-view.

A canopy offers exceptional field-of-view to

the pilot, which is very desirable for many
travelers, in addition to reducing the risk of
a mid-air collision.

Excessively high cabin temperatures due

to greenhouse effects are a drawback of the
canopy.

The acrylic canopy must be installed and

operated with care (if flexible), as cracks
may develop around fastener holes.
Propeller configuration

The tractor configuration is a proven arrangement that is

generally suitable for most applications.

It provides undisturbed air for the propeller although the

higher airspeed and lower quality air increase the drag of the
body immersed in the propwash.

The pusher propeller is a good solution to some specialized

mission requirements, for instance observation missions.
This will remove the propeller from the field of view and
allow a high-visibility cockpit to be designed.
Engine Placement
The moment generated by this force must be arrested by the
stabilizing surfaces.
If the engine thrust is placed above the CG of the airplane,
the consequence will be a nose pitch-down moment that, on
conventional aircraft, must be trimmed out using elevator
trailing edge up (TEU) deflection.

The opposite holds for an engine whose thrust line is below

the CG.
The higher the thrust, the greater is the deflection required,
although a better method is to enlarge the size of the
elevator or increase the planform area of the horizontal tail,
or a combination thereof.
BOEING engine placement issue
Deadly competition!!!

The story starts with Airbus’s modification to the A320 model

The engine replaced with a larger one with a 15% efficiency
Modified airplanes named A320 neo, made high sales.

So, Boeing changed the engine as well.

However, the work of Boeing was much harder than Airbus!!!
There was not enough room for the engine in Boeing
The engines were placed above the wing

Finally, high selling rates were achieved by Boeing

Due to the engine placement,
the nose rise was too high when the plane was ascending.

Rather than structural engineering, Boeing tried to

solve the problem with the software. The sensor
was placed at the nose of the plane. When the nose
rise is too high, the plane was automatically pushed
the nose down.

157 people were killed from this

accident happened in Indonesia due
to the engine placement issue.

For the full story: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H2tuKiiznsY&ab_channel=Vox

and https://www.vox.com/2019/4/5/18296646/boeing-737-max-mcas-software-update
• Configuration A features the jet engines in pods (or nacelles) mounted to the aft part
of the fuselage.

• The placement results in modest, if any, pitch effects and is intended to reduce engine
noise in the cabin, although noise in the aft-most part of the cabin is increased.

• Configuration B mounts the engines below the wing, using pylons, most common
configuration used for airliners.

• The configuration is vulnerable to foreign object damage (FOD).

• The placement is beneficial from a structural standpoint as the weight of the engines
introduces bending moment relief, which ultimately reduces airframe weight.

• Additionally, its forward position has a favorable effect on the flutter characteristics of
the wings.
• Configuration C features the engine above the wing and will generate
nose pitch-down moment at high thrust settings.

• The intent of this configuration is to avoid the ground clearance

problem of under-wing nacelles.

• However, it can introduce peculiar aerodynamic and flutter issues.

• Configuration D is a twin-engine turboprop aircraft with

propellers mounted in nacelles on the wing.

• This is the most common method to install turboprops in

such aircraft.

• However, it can lead to serious asymmetric thrust

condition in a one engine inoperative (OEI) situation.

• Also, the rotating propellers can cause a so-called whirl-

flutter or subject the airframe to fatigue through
• Configuration E is a tractor propeller configuration, which has
limited thrust effects due to engine placement, but more due to
the physics of propeller thrust generation.

• Configuration F is a seaplane, with the engine placed on top to

protect the propeller from sea spray.

• It is a pusher configuration. It suffers from substantial pitch effects

but, as stated earlier, this detriment is accepted due to the protection
the prop enjoys.
• Configuration G is a pusher configuration.
• The propeller will help keep flow attached on the aft part of the
fuselage.

• It is subjected to some drawbacks of the pusher propeller

configuration, although the particular configuration shown improves
safety by making it hard to accidentally walk into a rotating propeller.

• Configuration H is a single-engine jet that features a turbofan engine

on a pylon on top of the fuselage.

• It would suffer from substantial pitch effects, although this can be

partly remedied by deflecting the nozzle a few degrees up.

• The advantage of the engine placement is that it places the inlet in the
airstream so it has a high-pressure recovery, even at high angles-
ofattack (AOA).
• Configuration I features a buried engine, which results in
minimal pitch effects with thrust, if any.

• The drawback is that the bifurcated inlet reduces pressure

recovery at the front face of the compressor, reducing maximum
available thrust.

• The bifurcated duct is also problematic if the airplane is operated

in icy conditions as ice will accrete in the bend of the inlet.

• Configuration J is a small four-seat twin-engine propeller-powered

aircraft.

• Its piston engines are mounted on the wings and must sit high enough
to prevent damage to the propellers due to small objects that might be
thrown from the operation of the nose landing gear on unimproved
runways, or if it is subject to a flat tire on any of the landing gear.

• The nacelles are designed to accommodate the retractable landing

gear. It features an H-tail to help generate restoring yawing moments
in the case of an OEI situation.
Landing Gear Configurations

A large number of different landing gear configurations have been

developed for use in aircraft.

It should be stressed it does not show all the options, only those that are
used on 99.99% of all GA aircraft.

The most widely used configuration is the tricycle, followed by the

Tricycle
taildragger.

One of the advantages of a taildragger is less drag than the tricycle.

An example of improvements attained by a small aircraft is that of the

Cessna 150.

It is claimed that converting a tricycle version of the aircraft to a taildragger

gave it an increased cruising speed of nearly 8 knots.

Traildragger
 • Taildragger aircraft have a number of advantages that make them
more attractive for “bush-plane” operations.

• The primary advantage is the high AOA that can be generated at a

low airspeed (in fact at zero airspeed).

• These planes can take off in short distance so suitable for bush-
plane operations.

• The taildragger configuration is dynamically unstable and more

prone to ground looping.

• It is better for operation off unimproved runways.

Ground looping

A ground loop is a rapid rotation of a fixed-wing aircraft in the

horizontal plane (yawing) while on the ground.

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=ground+loop+airplane
The monowheel with outriggers is a popular design for sailplanes and motor gliders Monowheel with outrigger
like the British-designed Europa XS and the German Scheibe Tandem-Falke.

The monowheel configuration reduces the drag of the landing gear. The same is
true of the tandem wheel configuration, although it is rarely used in GA aircraft.

The British Hawker Harrier is the best-known example of tandem wheel

configurations.

Tricycle, taildraggers, mono- and tandem wheel configurations may all be

retractable.

Fixed landing gear will increase the drag of the airplane and, if this is the case, the Tandem wheel configuration
designer should strongly consider wheel fairings for drag reduction.
• The tricycle landing gear makes the vehicle dynamically stable on the
ground and reduces the risk of a ground loop.

• For this reason, it is better for inexperienced pilots and, thus, better
suited for trainer aircraft.

• The floats increase drag substantially, but allow operation on land

and water.

• They are still popular among many pilots who are more interested
in access to reach wilderness rather than high airspeeds.
Configuration vertical wings are given on the left.
However, detailed information will be given on
following lectures
(Chapter 11)