Mastering Lubrication Management

Machine Lubrication Analyst II

Trainer:
HINA SARFRAZ
Level II Machine Lubricant
 International Council for Machinery Lubrication – MLA II

ICML is a global non-profit organization dedicated to helping lubrication practitioners succeed in their professional
careers. ICML certification exams are in accordance with ISO 18436 and are available worldwide, in multiple
languages.
ICML offers industry the following three certifications.

Machine Lubricant Analyst (MLA) - These individuals must demonstrate skills in the area of used lubricant analysis for machine
condition monitoring. Level I certification is oriented toward the basics of lubrication and sampling, Level II focuses on sampling,
test selection and fundamental data interpretation. Level III is directed toward advanced diagnostics and troubleshooting, integration
with other technologies and program management.
Machinery Lubrication Technician (MLT) - These individuals must demonstrate skills in the day-to- day activities associated with
proper lubrication of machinery. Level I is oriented toward lubrication basics and the proper application and storage of lubricant.
Level II is directed toward advanced understanding of lubrication fundamentals, lubricant selection and lubrication schedule and
program management.
Laboratory Lubricant Analyst (LLA) - These individuals must demonstrate skills in the performance of oil analysis activities

typically required of a laboratory technician working in the used lubricant analysis field. Level I is oriented toward the basic aspects
of performing common tests in the lab and assuring data quality. Level II is directed toward advanced diagnostics, troubleshooting
instrument error and managing lab processes, including testing Caonpdygri shet rAvssiecteReqail ubailltiytLyL.C
 Body of Knowledge

1. Lubricant roles and functions (4%)

2. Oil Analysis Maintenance Strategies (4%)
3. Contamination Control (25%)
4. Oil Sampling (29%)
5. Wear Debris Monitoring and Analysis (17%)
6. Lubricant health monitoring (21%)
 Body of Knowledge
 Lubricant roles and functions (4%)
A. Base oil
1. Functions
2. Properties
B. Additive functions
1. Surface active additives and their functions
2. Bulk oil active additives and their functions
C. Synthetic lubricants
1. Synthetic lubricant types
2. Conditions dictating their use
D. Lubrication regimes
1. Hydrodynamic
2. Elasto-hydrodynamic
3. Boundary
 II. Oil Analysis Maintenance Strategies (4%)
A. Fundamental aspects of Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM)
B. Fundamental aspects of Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM)
1. Predictive maintenance strategies
2. Proactive maintenance strategies
 Body of Knowledge
 III. Oil Sampling (29%)
A. Objectives for lube oil sampling
B. Equipment specific sampling:
1. Gearboxes with circulating systems
2. Engines
3. Single and multi-component circulating oil systems with separate reservoirs
4. Hydraulic systems
5. Splash, ring and collar lubricated systems
C. Sampling methods
1. Non-pressurized systems
2. Pressurized systems - Low
3. Pressurized systems - High
D. Managing interference
1. Bottle cleanliness and management
2. Flushing
3. Machine conditions appropriate for sampling
E. Sampling process management
1. Sampling frequency
2. Sampling procedures
3. Sample processing
 Body of Knowledge
 V. Lubricant health monitoring (21%)
A. Lubricant failure mechanisms
1. Oxidative degradation
a) The oxidation process
b) Causes of oxidation
c) Effects of oxidative degradation
2. Thermal degradation
a) The thermal failure process
b) Causes of thermal failure
c) Effects of thermal degradation
3. Additive depletion/degradation
a) Additive depletion mechanisms
b) Additives at risk for depletion/degradation by the various mechanisms.
B. Testing for wrong or mixed lubricants
1. Baselining physical and chemical properties tests
2. Additive discrepancies
C. Fluid properties test methods and measurement units
1. Kinematic Viscosity (ASTM D445)
2. Absolute (Dynamic) Viscosity (ASTM D2983)
3. Viscosity Index (ASTM D2270)
4. Acid Number (ASTM D974 et al)
5. Base Number (ASTM D974 et al)
6. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analysis
7. Rotating Pressure Vessel Oxidation Test (ASTMD2272)
8. Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
 Body of Knowledge
 Lubricant contamination measurement and control (25%)
A. Particle contamination
1. Effects on the machine
2. Effects on the lubricant
3. Methods and units for measuring particle contamination
4. Techniques for controlling particle contamination
B. Moisture contamination
1. Effects on the machine
2. Effects on the lubricant
3. States of coexistence
4. Methods and units for measuring moisture contamination
5. Demulsibility measurement
6. Techniques for controlling moisture contamination
C. Glycol coolant contamination
1. Effects on the machine
2. Effects on the lubricant
3. Methods and units for measuring glycol contamination
4. Techniques for controlling glycol contamination
D. Soot contamination
1. Effects on the machine
2. Effects on the lubricant
3. Methods and units for measuring soot contamination
4. Techniques for controlling soot contamination
E. Fuel contamination (fuel dilution in oil)
1. Effects on the machine
2. Effects on the lubricant
3. Methods and units for measuring fuel contamination
4. Techniques for controlling fuel contamination
F. Air contamination (air in oil)
1. Effects on the machine
2. Effects on the lubricant
3. States of coexistence
4. Methods for assessing air contamination
a) Air release characteristics (ASTM D3427)
b) Foam stability characteristics (ASTM D892)
5. Techniques for controlling air contamination
 Body of Knowledge

VI. Wear Debris Monitoring and Analysis (17%)
A. Common wear mechanisms
1. Abrasive wear
a) Two-body
b) Three-body
2. Surface fatigue (contact fatigue)
a) Two-body
b) Three-body
3. Adhesive wear
4. Corrosive wear
5. Cavitation wear
B. Detecting abnormal wear
1. Atomic emission spectroscopy methods
a) Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy
b) Arc-spark emission spectroscopy
2. Wear particle density measurement
C. Wear debris analysis
1. Ferrogram preparation
2. Filtergram preparation
3. Light effects
4. Magnetism effects
5. Heat treatment
6. Basic morphological analysis
Oil Analysis Maintenance Strategies
 Growing Pressures on Businesses

“Producing quality products or providing services at competitive prices is

essential for surviving in today’s business climate.”

Current Challenges

• Shareholder Value – pressure to increase profit margins

• Health and Safety – make the plants more safer for humans
• Waste Regulations – Waste management
• Government Pressures
• Environmental Control
• Cost Optimization
• Lack of Skilled Work force
• ROI and NPV
STRUCTURES AND MACHINES
 STRUCTURES AND MACHINES

Drivers

Intermediate
Drives

Driven
Components
 MAINTENANCE

Definition
The combination of all technical and administrative actions, including
supervision actions, intended to retain an item in, or restore it to, a state in
which it can perform a required function.

Maintenance is a set of organised activities that are carried out in order to

keep an item in its best operational condition with minimum cost acquired.

Activities
Important for an item to
Repair reach its acceptable
Replacement productivity conditions

Should be carried out

with lowest possible cost
 MAINTENANCE PLAN

On Failure Condition Based

Fix it when it fails Maintain Based Upon
known Condition

Maintenance Plan

Fixed Time Design Out

Maintain Based Identify & design
upon Out root cause of
Calendar failure
MAINTENANCE STRATGIES

Reactive Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance
Predictive Maintenance
Proactive Maintenance
Reliability Based
Maintenance
MAINTENANCE STRATGIES
 REACTIVE MAINTENANCE

If it isn't broke, don’t fix it

No money spent on maintenance until machine or structure stops working

Sounds Interesting .....

BUT
AT THE COST OF HUGE MAINTENANCE BUDGET!
 BREAK DOWN MAINTENANCE AS A
REACTIVE MAINTENANCE
Control is lost when
breakdown maintenance
is employed. This is why
it is often termed“
reactive” maintenance.
The plant reacts or
responds to equipment
failures rather than
anticipating them,
planning for them or
avoiding them altogether.
 REACTIVE MAINTENANCE

Advantages of Reactive Maintenance

(Breakdown Maintenance)
• Low cost. • Less staff.
Disadvantages of Reactive Maintenance
•Increased cost due to unplanned downtime of equipment
•Increased labour cost, especially if overtime is needed.
•Cost involved with repair or replacement of equipment
• Possible secondary equipment or process damage from
equipment failure.
•Inefficient use of staff resources
REACTIVE MAINTENANCE
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Time Driven Maintenance

Based On

Elapsed Time Hour of Operations

Bath Tub Curve

Time between maintenance decided on statistical data

 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Preventative maintenance is defined as regularly scheduled repair of

components and equipment.

It may consist of:

 Scheduled inspection

 Cleaning, lubrication

 Parts replacement

 Repair of components

Preventative maintenance is time based intervention according to a

prescribed schedule.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Bath-Tub Curve
 INFANT MORTALITY

The unfortunate reality is that there is a high probability of failure

immediately after an overhaul due to:

Incorrect Poor
Poor
parts being alignment and
lubrication
installed balance

Infant Mortality
 RISK IS BALANCED AGAINST COST

If the maintenance is put off too long, the machine may fail
If the overhaul is performed too early, it becomes too
expensive, in labor, lost production and parts
GOOD EXAMPLES OF PREVENTIVE
MAINTENANCE
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE
Regular Machine
Monitoring

Technology Skills

Diagnostic Data

Performance Data
Maintenance
Histories
Operations Data

Design Data
MACHINE WARNS ABOUT THEIR
FAILURE
 PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE

DISADVANT
AGES:

Extremely Costly if
Implemented Incorrectly!

The drawback of predictive maintenance is that it depends heavily

on information and the correct interpretation of the information.
EXAMPLES
 PROACTIVE MAINTENANCE

GETTING TO THE ROOT OF PROBLEM

Elimination of conditional failures through the identification

of the root cause condition that initiates the failure cycle.

It commissions corrective actions aimed

at the sources of failure.

Designed to extend the life of

mechanical machinery
 CONDITION BASED MAINTENANCE

Condition-Based Maintenance

Proactive Maintenance Strategy Predictive Maintenance

Root Causes It Looks For! Failure Symptoms & Faults

Balancing/Alignment Tools Example Wear Debris Analysis

Viscosity/Contamination Technologies Vibration Analysis
Monitoring Employed Thermography/MCS

Fault Free Machine Benefits Early detection of Faults &

Life Extension Sought Failures
 WITH MAINTENANCE OPTIMIZATION
With a strategically balanced
approach, Maintenance Optimization
drives the achievement of mission
PdM PaM
critical objectives - such as
RM
becoming the Best Cost Producer PM

PdM
PM

RM
PM
RM = Reactive Maintenance
PM = Preventive Maintenance
PdM = Predictive Maintenance RM
PaM = Proactive Maintenance
RELIABILITY CENTERED
MAINTENANCE
Four components of Reliability
Centred Maintenance Program

Reactive Preventive
Maintenance Maintenance

Reliability
Centred
Maintenance

Proactive Predictive
Maintenance Maintenance
 FRAME WORK OF RELIABILITY CENTERED
MAINTENANCE
Is Asset’s
Reliability
Acceptable?
NO

Is Asset’s YES
Mission
Critical? Will improved maintenance Will redesign cost
NO
NO cost effectively achieve effectively achieve
reliability objective? reliability objective?
Is the Asset
expendable? YES YES NO
NO
YES Deploy
Run the Asset advanced Deploy Deploy
to Failure maintenance redesign redundancy
tactics
Continuous
Improvement
 MACHINE FAILURES REASONS

1. Design and Manufacturing errors

2. Installation errors
3. Operation errors
4. Maintenance errors

• What is common factor in the above 4 reasons ?

Human Error is the most common cause of random failures.
 Failure Management Maintenance Strategies

 There are six distinct failure management (maintenance) strategies

 Replace after a given interval – scheduled replacement (discard)
 Refurbish after a given interval – scheduled Overhaul (restoration)
 Measure its condition and intervene before performance becomes
unacceptable condition based task
 Check to see it has not failed (applicable to hidden failures). –
failure finding task (functional checks)
 Repair it when it fails – run to failure
 Modify it, or the way it operates, so it will not fail in a given way -
redesign
 RCM Logics in One Page
The maintenance task must match the failure mechanism and
consequences; that is essential.RCM task should be applicable (should
address the failure mode) and effective (should reduce the risk of failure
cost effectively)..
1. If the failure has minor or trivial consequences, a run-to-failure strategy is
justified. (Reactive Maintenance)
2. When it is well correlated to age, such as brake-pad wear or gas turbine blade
fatigue (i.e., peaky shape in a probability density curve), age based maintenance
is appropriate. (Preventive Maintenance, Scheduled Replacement or Scheduled
Over haul)
3. When the physical degradation can be measured, and takes a few weeks or
months from onset to functional failure and is reasonably consistent (following
the P-F curve), PdM is appropriate. (Predictive Maintenance)
4. When there are high consequences and no effective task can be found, redesign is
the only option available. (Redesign / Modification)
5. This is RCM logic in one page, and it works every time.
 Maintenance and Reliability Strategies

Maintenance programs typically run

at four levels of increasing sophistication
■ Run-to-failure

■ Preventative

■ Predictive

■ Proactive

You can’t manage what you can’t measure!

Reliability programs typically include

three types of measurements:
■ Vibration measurement

■ Thermal test & imaging

■ Lubrication oil analysis

Oil analysis can play an important part in each program level!

 Complementary: vibration and oil
analysis
Proactive maintenance -prevents failure

Onset
of failure
Reduce dynamic loads to extend
ration machinery life & reduce fatique
Vib • Misalignment, imbalance, resonance,
looseness and incorrect assembly cause
Proactive
mechanical damage % life
remaining

~ 90% of component life

in
• Dust and other particles cause abrasion proactive period
• Water and other fluids cause corrosion
• Inadequate lubrication causes adhesion
Oil lysis
ana Operating hours

Eliminate root causes with proactive maintenance. No damage= long component life
 Complementary: vibration and oil
analysis
Predictive maintenance -failure has begun

onset Detection of incipient/initial damage

Monitor and trend from onset to predict
Predictive
failure
% remaining life

• Identify defects with vibration

~ 10% of component analysis (overall method and advanced
life in
n analysis techniques such as PeakVue®)
Predictive period` t io
Vi b ra

failure
• Monitor and trend key oil analysis
parameters critical to machinery
Operating hours Oil lysis health to establish alarm levels
ana

Eliminate root causes with proactive maintenance. No damage= long component life
PF CURVE
PF CURVE
Lubricant roles and
functions
 Definition of Lubricant

A lubricant is a substance interposed between

two surfaces in relative motion for the
purpose of reducing the friction and wear
between them.
 Functions of Lubricants

Absorb and transfer heat

Protect surfaces from corrosion

Separate moving surfaces

Transport contaminants to filters

Transmits force and motion

 OLDEST FASHION IN
REALITY,LUBRICATION ENGINEER
Relationship Between Friction,Wear and
Lubrication
Relationship Between Friction,Wear and
Lubrication
Relationship Between Friction,Wear and
Lubrication
 Formation of Lubricants

Lubricants are prepared with the combination of:

Base Stock Additives

Oil from Different

Refinery Chemicals

99-70% 0.1-30%
 Base Stock
Base Stock:

The fundamental component in the formulation of the a lubricant. Base oil

provides most of the viscosity and Serves as a host for the important chemical
and solid additives.

Base Stock

Mineral Synthetic
 BASE STOCK
• It is a engineered fluid!
• Selection of Base Stock is crucial for
lubricant performance, especially
viscosity
• Mineral Oil
• Napthenic
• Paraffinic
• Aromatic
• Synthetic Oils
• Poly alphaolefins
Classic CASTROL ad :Liquid
• Poly alkylglycols
engineering for your Car?
• Organic diesters
• Additives enhance or suppress base
stock properties
 Mineral oils
Most base oils are Mineral oils, meaning they are produced from crude oil
(Petroleum) using a number of different refining processes
 REFINNING PROCESS

Other refining processes might be applied to enhanced the end result,

including

1. Solvent Extraction-
2. Hydrogen Processing
• Mild Hydro treating
• Severe Hydro treating
3. Acid refining
4. Clay refining
5. Solvent or Catalytic Dewaxing
 Physical Properties
These Tests Help Describe Key Physical Properties of New Base Oils.

Properties Why it is Important How it is Determined ASTM No

Viscosity Defines the Base oil Grade Gravity flow capillary viscometer D445

Viscosity Defines viscosity- Viscosity variance Between 40 oC & D2270

100 oC
Index Temperature relationship

Specific Defines Density of Oil relative to Hydrometer D1298

Water
Gravity
Flash Point Defines high Temperature Flash Point Tester Temperature at D92/D93
Volatility and Flammability which flash surface flame is achieved
properties

Pour Point Defines low Temperature oil Gravity flow in Test jar, Temperature D97/IP15
Fluidity behavior at which approximately 220 0Cst is
reached
How much Lubricant in a barrel of Crude Oil ?
 Types Of Mineral Oil

Mineral Oil

Paraffinic Naphthenic Aromatics

Common Mineral
Oil Molecules
 Benefits of High Performance Mineral Oils

Features
• High Levels of Saturated Molecules
• Very low level of Aromatics
• Extremely low level of Polar Compounds (N, S, O)
• No heavy metals content
• Low Pour Point
• Higher Viscosity Index
• Higher Oxidation Resistance

Benefits
• Good Lubricity
• Low Volatility
• Very low water emulsification
• Low Toxicity
• Broad operating temperature range
• Longer life
High Performance Mineral Oils vs. Standard Mineral Oils

Property Standard Mineral High Quality

Oil Mineral Oil

Saturated Molecules, wt 75 – 90 > 99

%

Aromatics, wt% 10 - 15 < 0.1

Water, ppm 200 - 1500 < 200

Sulfur, ppm 50,000 – 150,000 < 10

Nitrogen, ppm 20 - 50 <2

Color, ASTM D1500 0.5 - 1.0 <0.5

 Base Oil Compatibility

Base Fluid Mineral Synthetic – Polyglycol Ester Silicone

Hydrocarbon PAO

Mineral - C I B I
Hydrocarbon

Synthetic – C - I B I
PAO

Polyglycol I I - I I

Ester B B I - I

Silicone I I I I -

Compatible = C Incompatible = I Borderline = B

 Comparison of Base Oil Types
Lubricity Low Temp Volatility Oxidation
Performance

Paraffinic Good Average to Good Good

Mineral Oils Poor

Naphthenic Good Good Good Average to

Mineral oils Poor

Alkylates Average Excellent to Average Good to

Good Average

Polybetenes Average Good to Average Average

average

Poly-Alpha- Good Excellent Excellent Excellent

Olefins (PAOs)

Esters and Di- Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent

Esters

Poly-Glycols Excellent Excellent Average Good

Silicones Poor Excellent Excellent Excellent
 Physical Properties

Property Method ASTM Paraffinic Oil Naphthenic Oil Aromatic Oil

Viscosity cSt@40 o
D445 40 40 36

Viscosity D445 6.2 5 4

cSt@100o C
Viscosity Index D2270 100 0 -185

Specific Gravity D287 0.8628 0.9194 0.9826

Flash Point 0C D92 229 174 160

Pour Point D97 -15 -30 -24

% Paraffinic D3238 66% 45% 23%
%Naphthenic D3238 32% 41% 36%
%Aromatic D3238 2% 14% 41%
 Synthetic Base Oils

“A man-made material (similar to

plastics) derived from petrochemicals”
•Chemically identical molecules designed by
scientists, possessing predictable
properties.
•Molecular structure is precisely planned
and controlled
•Naturally occurring low molecular
weight compounds are enlarged
(polymerized) by chemical reactions
forming higher molecular weight
structures of desired viscosity.
POLYMERIZATION
 Mineral vs Synthetic Base
Oils
A minority of the lubricants in service are
formulated using synthetic base oils instead of
base oils refined from crude. The molecules of
synthetic base oils are either entirely man made
(by synthesis or polymerization) or are highly
modified by the application of pressure,
temperature and /or catalysis. There are many
different types of synthetic oils with varying
properties
 Types Of Synthetic Oil

Poly Alpha Olefins

Poly Alkyl Glycols


Type
Poly-Alpha- Olefin (PAO)
D-Basic Acid Esters (Di Esters)
Polyol Esters
Poly Alkylene Glycols (PAG)
Synthetic Base Stocks - Comparison
Information and Costs
Similar to pure Paraffin. 4- 8 x times
the cost of mineral oils
Reacted with Oxygen and acid, 5-7
times more expensive than a
mineral based oil
Reacted with acid. 10-14 times more
expensive than mineral oils.
Includes Water Glycols, formed from
polymers of alkylene oxides, 6-8
times more expensive than mineral
oils.
Good Points
Wax Free, low pour point, High VI, shear
stable, good thermal and oxidation
stability, good compatibility with mineral
oil, good hydrolytic stability
Lower pour point, good thermal and
oxidation stability, good additive carrying
capability, can dissolve varnish and
sludge, good detergency, good solvency,
high VI, high film strength, fair
compatibility with mineral oil.
Higher thermal stability than Di Esters,
high shear stable VI, better oxidation
stability, some versions have good
biodegradability, good additive carrying
and good AW (anti wear) performance.
Good biodegradability and aqueous
toxicity, tends not to form deposits or
sludge at high temperatures, wide thermal
operating ranges and high VI.
Institute of Reliability
Centered Maintenance
Bad Points
Poor additive carrying ability,
(usually blended with 5-20%
diester or polyol ester), possible
seal shrinkage problem.
Poor hydrolytic stability
resulting in acids, softens
plastics, rubbers and neoprene
and some Buna N seals, poor
oil/water demulsibility, poor
anti rust performance.
Softens some plastics, poor Oil
water demulsibility, poor anti
rust performance, highly
hygroscopic (absorbs water),
some not compatible with
mineral oils.
Some not compatible with
mineral oils, fair additive
carrying capability, not
compatible with synthetic esters
or PAO.
Applications
Engines, Gears, steam
turbines, compressors,
process pumps, generator
bearings…
Rotary Screw and Reciprocating
compressors, process pumps
and some high operating
temperature machines.
Gas turbines, jet turbines,
heavy duty gear oils,
compressors, 2- stroke engine
oils.
Air compressors, Gas
compressors, industrial gear oils,
water based hydraulic fluids for
fire resistance and
environmental reasons, severe
duty bearings and process
pumps.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Synthetic Oil
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Increase Oxidation Stability. • High purchase cost
• Improved lubricity. • Seal and material incompatibility
• Fire resistance. • Potential Toxicity (Some Synthetics only)
• Better thermal resistance. • High disposal cost (Some synthetics only)
• Extended drain intervals. • Possible incompatibility with mineral oil
• Better low temperature • Poor hydrolytic stability (Chemical degrades
fluidity. in the presence of water).
• Lower Volatility and higher • Poor additive solubility (some synthetics are
flash point not mixable with additives).
• Natural detergency • Poor Lubricity(some synthetics only).
• Higher viscosity.
Saturates VS Unsaturates
American Petroleum Institute (API) Categories
 Additives
What they are
Organic and inorganic compounds dissolved or suspended in oil Can
represent from 0.1% to 30% of formulated oil volume Monitoring
additive health is an important goal of oil analysis.
Machine Common additives used Percent of
oil volume
Important
Engines Anti oxidant,corrosion 10-30 %
Additives inhibitor,dteregent,anti wear,anti foam
Antioxidant
Steam turbines Anti oxidant,corrosion ,anti faom,anti 0.5-5%
Dispersants and emulsifies
compressors
Corrosion Inhibitor Gears Anti oxidant,anti wear.anti foam, 1-10%
Extreme pressure,sometime corrosion
VI Improvers inhibitor

Hydraulic Anti oxidant,Anti wear,Anti 2-10%

Anti foam agents systems faom,corrosion inhibitor,pour point
depressent,viscosity index improvers
 Types of Additives

Additives

Surface Protective Performance

• Anti wear and EP • Anti Oxidants

Agent • Viscosity Index
• Corrosion & Rust Improver
inhibitor • Anti foaming
• Detergent • Pour Point Depressant
• Dispersant
• Friction modifier
 Additives
An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation
Antioxidan of other molecules.
t

To prevent the formulation of acids, varnish,

Function sludge and high viscosity that normally results
from oxidation

Antioxidants decompose reactive hydro peroxides

Working
and free radicals before they lead to oxidation

Aromatic amines, Zinc Dialkyl dithiophosphate

Common (ZDDP)
types
 Additives
An additive which is used to disperse sludge and soot
Dispersant particles for the purpose of preventing agglomeration,
s settling and deposits.

Head: Polar – Water Based

Dispersants envelopes particles and keep them

firmly divided in an homogenies manner.

It does not allow the particles to get

concentrated at one location

Tail: Non-polar – Oil Based

 Additives
• Tend to neutralize the deposits
• before formation under high temperature and pressure
Detergents conditions, or
• as a result of using a fuel with high sulphur content
• The organic portion of the detergent (“soap”), has the ability to
– associate with the salts to keep them suspended in the bulk lubricant
– to suspend nonacidic oxygenated products, such as alcohols,
aldehydes, and resinous oxygenates
• To keep surfaces clean
 Difference between detergent and
dispersant

Together make about 45–50%, of the total volume of the lubricant

additives manufactured
Differences:
• Dispersants are metal-free, detergents contain metals (magnesium,
calcium)
• Dispersants have little or no acid-neutralizing ability, but detergents
do
• Dispersants are much higher in molecular weight, (approx. 4–15
times higher) than the organic portion (soap) of the detergent
 Additives
Corrosion inhibitor forms a polar adherent film
Corrosion to steel and cast iron surfaces to repel water
Inhibitor which inhibits rust formation.

Corrosion inhibitor
range
Phosphoric acid esters
Fatty acid amides
Carboxylic acid derivatives
Boric acid amine blends
Alkanol amides
 Additives
Viscosity Index is an arbitrary measure for the
Viscosity Index change of viscosity with temperature.

VI Improvers tries to minimize the effects of

VI Improvers varying temperature on lubricants

It is used to characterize lubricating oil in the

Use:
automotive industry.

VI
improvers
Ethylene propylene copolymers

Polyisobutylene
 Additives
An anti-foaming agent is an additive that reduces the formation of foam
(air bubbles) in industrial process liquids
Anti-Foam
Agents Anti foam use silicone to weaken surface
bubbles allowing them to quickly collapse.

Functions They expands the air bubbles and move them to the surface to explode.

Compounds used includes methyl silicones

and organic polymers. Blended into base oil
at 5-10ppm.
 Additives
They are long chain materials that form an adsorbed film
Anti wear & EP on the metal surfaces with the polar ends of the molecules
Agent attached to the metal and the molecules projecting more
or less normal to the surface.
Functions

 Chemical reaction with metal surface and forms a film.

 Prevents metal-to-metal contact
 ZDDP, Organic Phosphates, acid or Compounds like phosphates, organic sulfur
and chlorine compounds etc.
 Additives

Pour Point Enable lubricant to flow at low temperature

Depressant

Functions

 Modify wax crystal formation

to reduce interlocking
 Alkylated naphthalene
 Phenolic polymers,
Ploymethacrylates
 Maleate/fumerate copolymer
esters
 Additives for different Machines

Percent of oil
Machine Common additives used
volume
Engines Anti oxidant, corrosion inhibitor,detergent,anti wear,anti foam 10-30 %

Steam turbines Anti oxidant,corrosion ,anti foam ,anti emulsifies 0.5-5%

and compressors

Gears Anti oxidant, anti wear.anti foam, extreme pressure,sometime 1-10%

corrosion inhibitor

Hydraulic Anti oxidant,antiwear,antifoam,corrosion inhibitor,pour point 2-10%

systems depressant,viscosity index improvers
 Lubrication Regimes

Four different forms of lubrication can be identified for self-

pressure generating lubricated contacts:

 Hydrodynamic..
 Partial or mixed.
 Boundary
 Elastohydrodynamic.

During the starting phase the static
friction is followed by boundary friction
(high friction / high wear). The friction
and wear is controlled by additives.
Under extreme load it may remain
boundary lubrication.
Lubrication
Regimes
With increasing speed the sliding
surfaces are partially separated by the
lubricant, this phase is called mixed film
lubrication (medium friction / medium
wear). In this phase the emergency
lubrication film formed by the additives
protects the sliding surfaces, in some
instances this may remain as a mixed
film.
At even higher speeds the sliding surfaces
are separated from each other by a
hydrodynamic fluid film, in this phase the
lowest value of wear is achieved. In this
phase the viscosity acts to separate the
components. Additives may not be
required depending on the nature of the
machine.
 The Stribeck Curve & Lambda
Ratio .

Lambda = λ = h / SR
40

Where,
h = Mean Film Thickness
SR = Surface Roughness

Boundary, λ < 1.2

EP additive is a boundary layer
lubricant additive – Example: Thick Film, λ >
Antiwear AW additive 2.0
.

Lubrication Regimes vs Film Thickness

40
 Thick Film – Rolling Contact

Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication – is unique to

rolling- friction surfaces experienced in ball and roller bearings and in combination-
friction circumstances such as when two gear teeth mate in a sliding and rolling
action.
•When a ball is rolling in a race and comes under full load, the mating surfaces will
momentarily deform, trapping the lubricant in the deformed area known as the
Hertzian contact area. Under deformation pressure, the lubricant viscosity rapidly
rises and the lubricant changes from a liquid to a solid, providing full
protection to the rolling surfaces.
44

•As the ball moves out of the load zone, the lubricant returns back to its original
viscosity. Because rolling surface contact is in a line and not over the entire surface
area, a lot less lubricant is required to achieve full film lubrication.

Discussion – How much is the Film thickness in case of Rolling Contact ?

 Fluid Film Lubrication

•Hydrostatic lubrication is when an

external pressure is applied to the
lubricant in the bearing, to maintain the
fluid lubricant film where it would
otherwise be squeezed out.

•Hydrodynamic lubrication is where the 4

3

motion of the contacting surfaces, and

the exact design of the bearing is used to
pump lubricant around the bearing to
maintain the lubricating film. This design
of bearing may wear when started,
stopped or reversed, as the lubricant film
breaks down. Oil Wedge formation.
THICK FILM SLIDING OR ROLLING CONTACT
Lubrication Regimes
Lubrication Methods
Lubrication Methods
Grease
 Grease Thickener Types
Thickener type Maximum temperature Effect of Resistan Typical application
Water ce to
for prolonged use - deg softenin
C g
Calcium Soap 55-65 Highly Resistant Fair to Good Chassis grease, General
Purpose Industrial
greases
Calcium 80-90 Highly Resistant Excellent Multi Purpose Greases
Hydroxystearate
Calcium Complex 120-150 Highly Resistant Excellent Industrial Grease

Sodium Soap 120-140 Susceptible Fair Ball and Roller

bearings, Electric
Motors
Sodium Complex 150-175 Highly Resistant Excellent Multipurpose Industrial
grease
Aluminum Complex 110-135 Resistant Good Industrial grease
Lithium Soap 110-130 Resistant Fair Multipurpose
Automotive and
Industrial grease
Lithium Complex 150-175 Resistant Excellent Multipurpose
Automotive and
Industrial grease
Polyurea 150-175 Highly Resistant Fair to Multipurpose
Excellent Automotive and
Industrial grease
Bentone 140-160 Resistant Fair General Purpose grease
for high temperature
bearings where
 Grease Thickener Compatibility

Calcium Lithium 12-

Aluminium 12- Calcium Hydroxy Lithium
Complex Barium Calcium Complex Clay Lithium Stearate Complex Poly Urea
Hydroxy
Stearate

Aluminum Complex X I I C I I I I C I

Barium I X I C I I I I I I

Calcium I I X C I C C B C I

Calcium 12- Hydroxy C C C X B C C C C I

Stearate

Calcium Complex I I I B X I I I C C

Clay I I C C I X I I I I

Lithium I I C C I I X C C I

Lithium 12-Hydroxy I I B C I I C X C I
Stearate

Lithium Complex C I C C C I C C X I

Poly Urea I I I I C I I I I X

C = Compatible, I = Incompatible, B= Borderline, X = Not Applicable

 Grease Vs Oil
Advantages:
 Better Stop/Start Performance
 Enhanced Squeeze film lubrication
 Seals out contamination
 Minimizes Product contamination
 Reduces leakage and lubricant starvation risks
 Reduces labor in lubricated-for-life applications
 Better suspension of solid additives
Disadvantages:
 Reduced Heat transfer or cooling capacity
 Limitations on bearing speeds
 Compatibility risks exist between thickener types
 Less resistance to oxidation
 Contamination control is more difficult
 Difficult to control the correct the correct quantity – Risk of Over greasing
 Lubricant analysis is more complex
Bearing Lubrication
SUMMARY
Contamination Control
 Contamination

Contamination, by definition, is anything in the oil that is

foreign to the oil and machine. It enters from the atmosphere or
is generated from within to rob lubricants and components of
precious life.
The four most common and destructive lubricant contaminants
are :
 Particle Contamination

 Moisture Contamination

 Fuel Contamination

 Soot Contamination

 Glycol Contamination
What Type of Contamination Exist
What Damage Does contamination
Cause
What Damage Does contamination
Cause
 WHY DO WE NEED
CONTAMINATION CONTROL
 Particle Contamination

Particles are responsible for much of the wear that leads to

mechanical failure. The amount of damage inflicted by particles
depends largely upon their population, size, shape, hardness and
chemistry. Particles must be controlled in any system deemed
critical to operation or expensive to repair what follows is a
concise summary of the four ways that particles can rob precious
productivity and profits:
 Surface Removal.

 Restriction of Oil Flow and Part Movement.

 Increased Consumption of Lubricants and Filters.

 Higher Energy Consumption and Environmental Impact

Surface Removal
 Categories of Particles Ingression

The word “ingression” refers to the introduction of particles into lubricants

and hydraulic fluids regardless of the source (external and internal).For
clean-environment indoor equipment, the primary sources can be form
process fluids and internal generation (wear, corrosion, etc.)

For outdoor machinery, climate conditions have a marked influence on

particle ingestion. For instance, rain and damp soil keep particles from
becoming airborne. High winds and dry climates do just the opposite.
 Categories of Particles Ingression

Figure organizes common ingression sources into three subcategories: built-

in, ingested and generated. Depending on the nature of the machine, the
ingression rate and sources can vary considerably.
 Contaminant Exclusion

For many machines, the exclusion of contamination is

the only practical way to control contamination. This is
because these machines either have no filter or the filter
in use in coarse, providing no real protection in the
particle size range of critical oil films and surfaces.
 Ingression and Mass Balance

Even hydraulic systems with good filters are often faced

with ingression challenges. To maintain contaminant
levels within targets, the filter must remove particles at a
rate equal to the ingression rate (mass balance).
 Cost of Excluding Dirt

It is often said that the cost of excluding a gram of dirt is

only about 10 percent of what it will cost you once you
let it enter the oil.

As mentioned, dirt puts stress on additives, the base oil

and machine surfaces. So, too, the cost to filter a gram of
dirt form the oil is much higher than the cost of filtering
a gram of dirt form the air intake/breather.

Controlling Top-End Ingression

 Controlling Top-End Ingression

For many machines, reducing ingression mean reducing

top-end ingression – the particles entering through gill
ports, vents, breathers, hatches, inspection ports and
other headspace openings. There are numerous ways to
control top-end ingression, such as:
 Purge Methods.
 Isolation Methods.
 ,Filter Breathers.
 Controlling Top-End Ingression

 Purge Methods. This involves the introduction of a clean gas or

aerosol into the headspace of the reservoir. A slight positive pressure is
maintained to prevent the entry of ambient air. Examples include
instrument air purge, oil mist purge and nitrogen purge.
 Isolation Methods. Expansion chambers, piston/cylinder reservoirs
and bladders have been used to isolate headspace air from ambient air to
prevent contamination. One disadvantage is that moisture (humid air) is
often unable to escape from the headspace. This also locks moisture into
the oil.
 Filter Breathers. If reservoirs and sumps can be sealed tightly, such
that all air exchanged between the atmosphere and the headspace can be
directed through a single port, then high-quality filter breather can be used
to remove dust from incoming air at that port (vent). The quality of the
filter (capture efficiency) should be no less than that of the oil filter in use.
 Map Contaminant Ingression Sources

 The first step of a contamination control program is to identify

a machine’s target cleanliness level
 Next, identify the source and entry points of particles.(For
many machines there is a need to examine particles found in
used filters, bottom sediment, oil drains and live zone oil
samples as a means to deter mine their origin. )
 Taking necessary action to remove the source
 Improving the Cleanliness Targets
 Roll-off Cleanliness

 Roll-off cleanliness is the level of original cleanliness

expected to be achieved when assembling any component or
system with clean parts in a controlled manufacturing
environment. The purpose of maintaining a high level of roll-
of cleanliness is to minimize the overall original system
contamination and reduce the premature damage caused to
carious system components on startup.
Some of the areas that must be controlled are:
1. Assembly, rebuild, cleaning and repair areas

2. Component, Parts and fluid storage areas

3. Shipping and receiving, purchasing and the supplier areas

 Filtration and Particle Removal

 To achieve modern contamination control objectives, most machines require

filtration or separators. Numerous different filter types and separators are
available for removing particles. The performance of these devices is typically
evaluated according to the following performance criteria:
1. Filter Stability – how stable is the filter’s performance over time unstable
filter performance equates to unreliable contamination control (fluctuating
particle counts). Many factors influence filter stability including temperature
variation, cold starts, pressure surges and mechanical vibration. The filter’s
size, design and construction influence its stability.
2. Filter Dirt-Holding Capacity – This describes the amount of test
contaminant a filter can remove, typically in grams.
3. Filter Capture Efficiency – This define how effectively a filter can remove
particles greater than a given size. This is important information in assessing
a filter’s ability to meet the machine’s cleanliness requirements. It is also
important to assess the total cost to filter oil.
 Particle Filter Construction and
Separation Options
The following methods are available options for removing particles
from oil:

Cellulose Fiber Media Filters

Available in cartridge or spin-on configurations, this common type of filter is
equipped with a pleated media made from cellulose filter paper (wood pulp). These
filters are generally effective at removing larger particles but often lack performance
in the removal of silt-sized particles (less than 5 microns). Cellulose paper media is
subject to damage caused by water any high temperature.
Micro-fiberglass Media Filters
Also available in cartridge or spin-on configurations the performance of micro-
glass media filters is diameter, higher pore density and smaller average pore size.
These filters can remove most large particles and many smaller, silt-sized particles
from the oil they offer superior thermal stability and are generally unaffected by the
presence of water.
 Particle Filter Construction and Separation Options

 Centrifugal Separators

By spinning the oil at high rotational velocities, suspended particles and other
high-density contaminants can be efficiently separated. These separators are
generally most effective at removing large particles from low-viscosity oil.
Performance is degraded when particles are small of lower density or when the
oil’s viscosity is high.
 Electrostatic Separators
These devices capture particles by electrostatic precipitation. By creating a high-voltage
potential cell (no current flow), charged particles are attracted to the separation plate with
an opposite charge. Electrostatic separators offer excellent performance in the removal
of silt-sized particles and insoluble suspension of oxides and carbon polymers
that lead to varnish on component surfaces. Their performance depends upon the
dielectric property of the oil and is, therefore, impaired by the presence of water.
Electrostatic Separators

Electrostatic Separators
 Location of Filters

 There are three primary options for locating filter on a

conventional circulating system such as a hydraulic
system:

1. Pressure line
2. Return line
3. Offline
Location of Filters
 Location of Filters

Pressure-line Filtration
 Filters located on the pressure line receive the full flow and pressure delivered by
the pump
 Designed to handle these often extreme operating conditions.
 mitigate the risk of tank contamination from being dispersed into sensitive work-
end system components
 pumps in failure mode are protected from shelling out a debris field into
downstream components
 Slightly coarser filter elements (say 15 microns) in pressure-line filter housings to
gain their protective attributes,
 Rely on finer filters (say 3 microns) elsewhere for dirt removal.
 Location of Filters

Return-line Filtration.
 Proximity to the largest particle ingression sited on most hydraulic system.
 Particles can be stripped form the oil before reaching the reservoir.

Off-line Filtration
filters sit off the main operating system as a side-loop from the reservoir a
necessary supplemental component to the off-line filter is a pump and motor.
 Location of Filters

Off-line Filtration
he following are a few additional benefits and attributes of the off-line
filtration option:
 Higher initial cost (pump, motor, valves, piping)

 Constant flow optimizes dirt-holding capacity and capture efficiency for a

give type of filter

 Easy to service “on the run” (filter changes, repairs etc.)

 Heat exchanges can be built in the loop

 Sample ports can be installed for sampling on the run

 Lowest cost to remove a gram of dirt (expensive pressure-line and surge-

resistant filters are required)

 Filter Performance Testing and Ratings

Modern filters by reputable manufacturers have been tested

to assess performance attributes across a range of criteria:

 Collapse strength
 Burst pressures
 Structural integrity

The Contaminant-removal characteristics of a filter come

from testing don in accordance to standards such as
ISO16889 and ISO 4548/12
 Filter Performance Testing and Ratings

Filtration Ratio/Beta:
The filtration ratio is a measure of the particle capture
performance of a filter at standardized test conditions
(maximum rated flow, constant flow, constant temperature,
constant contaminant injection rate, standardized test dust and
fluid). The simplified schematic of a multi-pass test stand that
runs a filter to ISO16889 is shown in Figure 3-9.
 Filter Performance Testing and Ratings

The beta ratio is calculated as the number of particle above

specific micron size (per Unit volume of fluid) up stream of the
test filter divided by the number of particles above that same
micron size downstream of the filter (see Figure 3-10). The
standard calls for the micron size to be reported for filtration
ratios of 2, 20, 75, 100, 200 and 1,000.
FILTERATION TERMS
AND CONCEPT
Particle Size
Awareness
Particle Size
Awareness
 Particle counting test

Ability to specify target cleanliness levels for Systems, machines, and

incoming lubes.

 Ability to implement Contamination Control.

 Used to determine filtration specifications and efficiencies.

 Trending allows early indication of abnormal wear and increases in

contaminant levels due to outside influences.
 Three ways to count and size particles

 Using a Microscope (ISO 4407)

 Optical Particle Counting(ISO 11500)

 Automatic Pore Blockage particle counting (BS 3406)

Counting Particles by Microscope
 Optical particle
counters

Light blockage particle counter Light scattering particle counter

Counting Particles by Pore Blockage
 ISO particle counts

It is important to understand what ISO Particle Counts are

What is it?

Quantitative analysis
Quantitative analysis of oil is used to determine the distribution of
particle sizes in the oil.

Why ?
Try to keep oil at a cleanliness level to prevent wear and failures.

Targeted to remove clearance size particles out of the oil.

ISO Code range
Bearing Life Extension Table
 NAS 1638

NAS 1638 Class Number, of Particles per 100ml in

5 to 15 15 to 25 25 to 50 50 to 100 > 100
00 125 22 4 1 0
0 250 44 8 2 0
1 500 88 16 3 1
2 1000 178 32 6 1
3 2000 356 63 11 2
4 4000 712 126 22 4
5 8000 1425 253 45 8
6 16000 2800 506 90 16
7 32000 5700 1012 180 32
8 64000 11400 2000 360 64
9 128000 22800 4100 720 128
10 256000 45600 8100 1440 256
11 512000 91200 16200 2800 511
12 1000000 182000 32400 5800 1024
13 2048000 364800 64800 11520 2048
14 4096000 729600 129600 23040 4096
15 8192000 1459200 259200 46080 8192
16 16384000 2918400 518400 92160 16384
17 32768000 5836800 1036800 184320 32768
18 65536000 11673600 2073600 368640 65536
ISO 4406 VS NAS 1638
Plant Improvements results in Cost Saving
Preventing Spare Motors from Defect
What to Ask from Machine OEM
Typical Analysis of Material
Typical Analysis of Material
Typical Analysis of Material
 Particle counting benefits

 Verifies filter performance

 Verifies pump condition
 Verifies stored lubricant cleanliness
 Identifies changing atmospheric contamination
 Confirms systems flushing
 Identifies the need for ferrographic analysis
 Determines optimum filter change point
 Identifies new filter defects
 Verifies centrifuge performance
 Particle counting benefits

 Detects high corrosive wear

 Verifies bearing condition
 Confirms target cleanliness levels are achieved
 Oil quality n Identifies abnormal gear wear
 Identifies use of dirty top-up containers
 Verifies shaft seal exclusion performance
 Determines new oil cleanliness
 Identifies oil film failure problems
 Moisture Contamination

Water contamination is the second-most destructive

contaminant. As water coexists with oil in the following
states:
1. Dissolved
2. Emulsified
3. Free
Moisture Contamination
 Where Water Enters

Water enters the machine and oil many different ways, but most
commonly it is at sites where the machine interfaces with its
environment. Below is a summary of water ingression point:
 Environment
 Condensation
 Coolant Leakage
 How Water Affects the Oil

1. Water reacts with some additives to form precipitants and some chemically
aggressive by- products. This reaction is called hydrolysis.
2. Water also acts as a catalyst to promote oxidation, especially in the presence of
reactive metals like iron, copper and lead
3. when free water is allowed to accumulate in sumps and reservoirs, microorganisms
can grow.
4. The microbes feed on oil and certain additives and can grow to form thick biomass
suspensions. Microbial contamination also leads to corrosion, plugged filters and
surface deposits.
5. Water that is in a free or emulsified state interferes with lubrication by weakening
the load-bearing strength of the lubricant film leading to premature wear and failure
of bearings, gears, pistons and other wear-sensitive parts.
6. Dissolved water also can cause hydrogen-induced wear and failure of rolling
element bearings in a process known as hydrogen embrittlement.
7. Water rusts iron and steel surface and increase the corrosive potential of acids that
attack bearing metals.
 Controlling Water Contamination

Once detected, investigate the root cause of water

ingression. If the oil’s physical and chemical properties
are not irreparably damaged, the water can be removed
(dehydration and the oil returned to service.
Oil dehydration methods include:

1. Settling Tanks
2. Centrifugal Separator
3. Vacuum Distillation
Settling Tanks

This method is limited to free water as it is

unsuccessful in removing dissolved or
emulsified water.
 Centrifugal Separator

Centrifugal separation also fails to remove dissolved water and tightly

held emulsions of water in oil. Very often, centrifuges are used as a
first-pass removal of free water followed by other methods to remove
dissolved and emulsified water.
Vacuum Distillation

Vacuum Distillation can success full in

removing free and emulsified water, plus most
of the dissolved water.
Polymeric Super-absorbent Filters

The polymer absorbs free and emulsified water and form a gel
that is locked tightly into the filter’s media. Some versions of
these filters remove both water and dirt.
Dehydration by Air Stripping
 Fuel Contamination

Fuel enters the crankcase as blow-by with combustion gases and from leak-age.
Blow-by refers to combustion gases from the combustion chamber blowing by
the piston rings (usually at the ring gaps) and then entering the crankcase.
Abnormal amounts of blow-by occur due to incomplete or ineffective
combustion cause by one or more of the following:

• Excessive idling
• Lugging

• Defective Fuel Injection spray Pattern or dribbling

• Improper Fuel/air
 It’s Effect on the Oil

Fuel dilution reduces the lubricant’s performance in the following ways:

 Premature Oxidation – Fuel oxidizes very easily due to the high

concentration or aromatic molecules. Their oxidation in the lubricant

produces reactive by-products that stress the lubricant’s more stable
hydrocarbons (saturated molecules), setting off a chain reaction of
oxidative failure (sludge, varnish, increased viscosity and organic acids).
 Loss of Viscosity – Fuel, being Miscible with oil, causes viscosity

thinning. As can be seen in Figure 3-18, 10% diesel fuel in a motor oil
(SAE-30) reduces the viscosity more than 36% (from 110 to 70
centistokes).
 Additive Dilution – Fuel doesn’t bring any additives to the crankcase

therefore, the lubricant’s additives are proportionally diluted form fuel

dilution. In other words, 10% fuel in motor oil reduces the concentration of
all additives by 10%
 Sulfur Build-Up – Sulfur form some fuels, like diesel, increases the risk

of corrosion
Fuel Contamination
 It’s Effect on the Machine
Fuel dilution adversely affects the machine in the following ways:
 Increase Wear – Viscosity loss and anti-wear additive dilution couple to

increase the rate at which mechanical wear occurs.

 Increased Corrosion – Sulfuric acid and oxidation –induced organic acid

pair up to corrode component surfaces.

 Fire and Explosion Risk – High levels of fuel dilution can lead to ignition

of the mixture and engine explosion. Likewise, increasing lubricant levels

(due to the addition of fuel) can lead to overflow out of the crankcase,
creating a fire risk

Controlling Fuel Dilution

 Fuel dilution must be stopped at its source. Once contaminated with

excessive fuel, the oil must be condemned.

 Soot Contamination
Soot is a natural by-product of combustion extended oil drains or poor combustion lead to abnormal
soot accumulation that has harmful effect upon the lubricant and the machine. New environment
protection agency (EPA) requirements to control atmospheric soot and nitrous-oxide (NOX)
emissions using exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) will lead to increased soot loading in crankcase oils
in the coming years.
Where It Enters

Soot enters the lubricant as blow-by with combustion gases (see Figure 3-19) and is cause by the
following:

 Low Compression – produces poor combustion increasing the rate at which soot is generated.
 High Fuel/Air Ratio – caused by plugged or restricted air filter flow or incorrect mixture settings.
 Cold Air Temperatures – Occurs during seasonal operating conditions
 Lugging – Pulling an exceedingly high load or operating an engine in too high of a gear.

 Excessive Idling – extended periods of at-rest or serve low speeds during operation
 Soot Contamination
It’s Effect on the Oil
Soot has the following effect on the oil:
Dispersancy Loss – By adsorbing dispersant additive molecules, dispersancy
performance deteriorates rapidly when soot ingestion is high, leading to premature oil
failure.
Anit-wear Performance Loss – Anti wear additive molecules absorb to soot surfaces,
rendering them unavailable to protect machine components.
Increased Viscosity – Soot suspended in the oil increases the oil’s viscosity. This cause
increased temperature and slows the flow of lubricant to machine components.
It’s Effect on the Machine
Soot affects the machine in the following ways:
 Premature filter Plugging
 Increased abrasive wear (typically where boundary lubrication occurs such as
cam/cam- following wear zones)
 Deposit formation, sludge and oil-way blockage
 Soot Contamination

Controlling Soot Contamination

Soot must be controlled by dealing with the cause of ingestion relating

to engine combustion efficiency and causes of excessive blow-by. Once
soot hat contaminated the oil, little can be done to remove it. Some
success in removing soot using low-flow, bypass filters and centrifuges
have been reported. However, removing soot by these methods can
usually only occur after the soot particles have become agglomerated
(loss of disperancy), at which time deposit on machine surfaces many
have already occurred.
 Glycol Contamination

Glycol frequently contaminates crankcase lubricants and other

systems that utilize a glycol and water mixture for cooling. Always
present and flowing, glycol is a constant threat to leak into the
lubricant, especially in crankcase applications.

Where it Enters
 Typically, glycol leaks into the crankcase due to the following

reasons:
 Defective seals

 Cavitation of the cylinder liner

 Corrosion degradation of the cylinder liner

 Damaged cooler core

 Glycol Contamination

Its Effect on the Oil

Glycol has the following effects on the oil:
 Forms gels and emulsions
 increases viscosity
 Increase Oxidation
 From acids (e.g. formic and glycolic acids)
 Reacts with the detergent additives to forms oil balls ( hard, abrasive reaction product)

Its Effect on the Machine

Glycol has the following effects on the machine
Increase wear – this is cause by (1) the general poor lubricating quality of the oil, (2) a
change in oil viscosity, (3) the formation of oil balls, (4) particle-induced abrasion from
plugged oil filters, and (4) oil starvation from restricted oil flow (related to sludge and
deposit formation).
Increased Corrosion – Corrosion increase due to the acidic environment glycol creates in
the lubricant.
Filter Failure – Glycol clogs filters prematurely.
 Glycol Contamination

Controlling Glycol Contamination:

Glycol must be controlled at its ingestion point. It can’t be easily

removed once the oil is contaminated except with an oil change.
Under sever occurrence of glycol contamination, flash the
crankcase or sump before refilling with lubricant.
 Air Contamination
Why You Should Be Measuring Air Contamination
in Oil

In certain situations, air contamination has the potential

to be very destructive, and its effects on oil and
machinery deserve more attention.
 Air Contamination
Effect on Machines

Air contamination can cause a great deal of harm to

hydraulic systems
 Insufficient oil film strength
 Cavitation
 Varnishing
 Air Contamination
Effect on Lubricants:

 Oxidation
 Thermal failure
 Foaming
 Air Contamination
States of coexistence
It may exist as a contaminant in the following states:
Dissolved
The normal level of dissolved air for mineral oils is 10 percent by volume. High levels
of dissolved air from pressurized oil accelerates additive depletion and oxidation.
Entrained
Entrained air can be characterized as unstable, suspended microscopic air bubbles in oil, which
results in clouding of the oil. Entrained air has the potential to impact the oil’s compressibility,
heat transfer, film strength, oxidation, cavitation and varnishing (micro dieseling).

Free and foam.

Free air may be found wherever there are trapped pockets of air in dead zones, high regions
and stand pipes. It can affect hydraulic compressibility, corrosion, vapor lock (retarded
oil supply) and loss of system controls.
 Air Contamination
Methods for Assessing Air Contamination

Air release characteristics (ASTM D3427)

The air-release test can be used to determine the tendency of an oil to

retain entrained air. It is based on ASTM D3427. Compressed air is blown
into an oil sample using a defined method. The time required for the air to
be reduced to 0.2 percent by volume is then measured. While the oil’s
viscosity will be one of the main factors in the air-release time, other
variables related to the base oil formulation can influence these results as
well.
 Air Contamination

Techniques for controlling air contamination

Some of the effective methods to Control Air Pollution are as
follows:
(a) Source Correction Methods
1. Substitution of raw materials
2. Process Modification
3. Maintenance of Equipment
(a) Pollution Control equipment
(b) Diffusion of pollutant in air
What Damage do Solids cause?
Life Extension and Contamination
Control
Oil Sampling
 Oil Sampling
Methods
Objective of Oil Analysis:
Oil sampling is the most critical aspect of oil analysis. Errors in obtaining a representative sample impair all further oil analysis efforts. There are two
primary goals in obtaining a representative oil sample.
 Maximize Data Density- Simply stated, samples be taken in such a way that there is the most information
per milliliter of oil possible. This information relates to such criteria as cleanliness and dryness of the oil,
depletion of additives, and the presence of wear particles being generated by the machine. For instance,
taking samples downstream of filers would be contrary to sampling goal since the filter would effectively
remove much of the data before it could get the sample bottle.
 Minimize Data Disturbance- Samples should be extracted in such a way that the concentration of
information is uniform, consistent and unaltered by the sampling process. It is important to make sure that the
sample does not become contaminated during the sampling process. This can distort the date, making it
difficult to distinguish what was originally in the oil from what has come into the oil during the sampling
process. For example, sampling oil with a dirty sample bottle can result in data disturbance (a false positive in
this case).
 To ensure good data density and minimum data disturbance in oil sampling, consider the following factors,
each of which is discussed in detail later in the chapter:
 Sampling Location- Not all potential sampling locations in the machine will produce the same data. Some
locations are upstream of data-generation sites (a bearing, for instance) and other are downstream (a more
rich sample). Some machines require multiple sampling locations to answer specific question related to the
machine’s condition, location of a problem and severity. Optional locations (called secondary sample) can be
used on exception only for troubleshooting purposes.
The procedure by which a sample is drawn is critical to the success of oil analysis
 Sampling Procedure — The quality of the procedure by which a
sample is drawn is critical to the success of oil analysis. Sampling
procedures should be documented and followed uniformly by all
members of the oil analysis team. This ensures consistent use of
the correct procedure and helps to properly institutionalize oil
analysis within the organization. It also provides a recipe for
success to new members of the team.
 Sampling Hardware — The hardware used to extract the sample
should not disturb sample quality but should aid it. It should be
easy to use, clean, rugged and cost-effective.
 Sample Bottle — The type, size and cleanliness of the oil sample
bot­tle help assure that a representative sample is achieved.
 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

System Returns
Turbulence — The best sampling locations are highly turbulent, sometimes referred to
as live zones
 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

System Returns

Ingression Points —

Where possible, in circulating systems locate sampling ports downstream of the components

Filtration —

locate primary sampling valves upstream of filters, separators, dehy­drators and settling tanks

For filter performance evaluation, both upstream and downstream sampling valves
will be necessary.
 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS
System Returns
Drain Lines — In unflooded drain lines where fluids are mixed with air, locate
sampling valves where oil will travel and collect.
On hor­izontal piping, this will be on the underside of the pipe

Cirulating Oil Systems

 Live Zone Sampling from Circulating Systems

 When a sample is taken from a line in a circulating system, it is referred to

as a "live zone" sample. You can take measures during the sampling process
to improve the quality and effectiveness of the live zone sam­ple. What
follows is a summary of do's and don'ts.
Do:
 Sample from the system's turbulent zones, where the fluid is mov­ing and the

oil is well mixed.

 Sample downstream of the equipment after it has completed its pri­mary

function(s), such as lubricating a bearing or a gear or has passed through a

hydraulic pump or actuator.
 Sample systems during typical working conditions, on the run and under

normal applications. Try not to sample after an oil change, filter change or at
some time when the fluid wouldn't represent typ­ical conditions.
 Where required, employ secondary sampling locations to localize problems
 Live Zone Sampling from Circulating Systems

Don't:
 Sample from dead pipe legs, hose ends and stand pipes where the fluid

isn't moving or circulating.

 Sample after filters or separators.

 Sample when the machine is cold and hasn't been operating or has been

idling.
 Sample from laminar flow zones (lack of fluid turbulence). The best way

to insure the fluids are turbulent and mixed during the sam­pling process is
to sample from elbows instead of straight lengths of pipe
 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

Example of a large lubrication system with oil being supplied to

a set of bearings.

Drain line provides the primary sampling point. If there is an abnormal reading or an over-limit
alarm, take samples from the individual bearing drains. Also, obtain a sample on the supply fluid. By
comparing these samples, you can determine a good estima­tion of what the problem is and from where it
is being generated.
 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

 Hydrualic System with Pressurized Lines

 Sampling from Pressurized Lines

 When samples need to be taken from pressurized feed lines leading to bearings,
gears, compressors, pistons, etc., the sampling method is somewhat simplified.
Figure 4-5 shows four different configurations.
 Portable High-Pressure Tap Sampling — The upper-most configu­ration on
Figure 4-5 is a high-pressure zone where a ball valve or nee­dle valve is installed
and the outlet is fitted with a piece of stainless steel helical tubing. The purpose of
the tubing is to reduce the pres­sure of the fluid to a safe level before it enters the
sampling bottle.
 Minimess Tap Sampling — This alternative requires that a minimess valve (or
similar sampling device) be installed, preferably on an elbow. The sample bottle
has a tube fitted with a probe protruding from its cap. The probe attaches to the
minimess port, allowing the oil to flow into the bottle. There is a vent hole on the
cap of the sample bottle so that when the fluid enters the bottle, the air can expel or
exhaust from the vent hole. This particular sampling method requires lower
pressures (less than 500 psi) for safety.
 Sampling from Pressurized Lines

 Ball Valve Tap Sampling — This configuration requires the installa­tion of a ball
valve on an elbow. When sampling, the valve should be opened and adequately
flushed. Extra flushing is required if the exit extension from the valve is uncapped.
Once flushed, the sam­ple bottle's cap is removed and a sample is collected from the
flow stream before closing the valve. Take care when removing the bottle cap to
avoid the entry of contamination. This technique is not suit­able for high-pressure
applications.
 Portable Minimess Tap Sampling — This option requires installing a minimess
onto the female half of a standard quick-connect coupling.

This assembly is portable. The male half of a quick-connect is perma­nently fitted to the
pressure line of the machine at the desired sampling location. To sample, the portable
female half of the quick-connect is snapped onto the male piece affixed to the machine.
To sample, the bottle's probe tip is pressed onto the minimess valve to induce fluid flow
into the bottle. In many cases, these male quick-connect cou­plings are pre-existing on
the equipment. Always use helical coil, previously described, on high-pressure lines.
 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

Sampling from Pressurized Lines

 Portable High-Pressure Tap

Sampling
 Minimess Tap Sampling

 Ball Valve Tap Sampling

 Portable Minimess Tap Sampling

 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

Live Zone Sampling from circulating Systems

When a sample is taken from a line in a

circulating system, it is referred to as a "live
zone" sample
 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

Sampling From Low-pressure

Circulating Lines
 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

Sampling Non-Circulating Systems

 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

Sampling Non-Circulating Systems

 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

Drop Tube vacuums sampling

One of the most common methods for sampling a bath- or splash-lubricated wet
sump is to use the drop-tube vacuum sample method. With this method, a tube is
inserted through a fill port or dipstick port and lowered into the sump cavity —
usually about midway into the oil level
 Drop Tube vacuums sampling

Here is a summary of the risks and problems associated with drop-tube vacuum
sampling:
 Tube Location — A tube that is directed into the fill or dipstick port is extremely

difficult to control. The tube's final resting place is hard to predict, resulting in
samples being taken from different locations each time. There is always a risk of
the tube actually going all the way to the bottom of the sump, where debris and
sediment is picked up.
 Drop-Tube Contamination — There is considerable concern that the tube will

scoop up debris from the sides of the casing as it isbeing inserted. Also, the tube
itself may be contaminated due to poor cleanliness control during handling and
storage.
 Large Flush Volume — The drop-tube method substantially increases the

volume of fluid that must be flushed in order to obtain a repre­sentative sample.

For some small sump systems, this results in nearly an oil change. Likewise, if
the removed volume of fluid is not replaced, the machine might be restarted with
inadequate lubricant volume.
 Drop Tube vacuums sampling

 Particle Fallout — For most systems, a shutdown is required

to deploy the drop-tube method. This means that production
must be disturbed for the sake of oil sampling, or sampling
frequency must suffer because of operations priorities. Neither
situation is ideal. Likewise, particles begin to settle and
stratify according to size and density immediately upon
shutdown, compromising the quality of oil analysis.
 Machine Intrusion — The drop-tube method is intrusive. The

machine must be entered to draw a sample. This intrusion

intro­duces the risk of contamination, and there is always the
concern that the machine might not be properly restored to
run-ready con­dition before startup.
 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

The following are the best and worst

applications for drop-tube vacuum sampling:
Worst:
 Gearbox and bearing sumps
 Large reservoirs with poor circulation
 Critical applications
 Where reliable trends for particle counts, large-particle wear
debris and moisture are routinely required
Best:
 Tank and reservoir sampling requirements
 Crankcase oils, if a live zone sampling port is not available
 Applications where particle counting, large-particle wear debris
and moisture trends are not required
 SAMPLING
LOCATIONS

In the case where drop-tube vacuum sampling must be used on

cir­culating systems, the best location to get the sample is
between the return line and the suction line
 EQUIPMENTS SPACIFIC
SAMPLING

Where to Sample – Wet Sump Systems, Comps and Engines

etc?
EQUIPMENTS SPACIFIC
SAMPLING
EQUIPMENTS SPACIFIC
SAMPLING
EQUIPMENTS SPACIFIC
SAMPLING
 SAMPLING BOTTLES
HARDWARE

 A representative sample is to make sure the sampling

hardware is completely flushed prior to obtaining the sample
 It is important to flush five to 10 time the dead-space volume

before obtaining the sample.

 All hardware that the oil comes into contact with is considered

dead space and must be flushed, including:

System dead-legs
Sampling ports, valves and adapters
Probe-on sampling devices
Adapters for using vacuum sample extraction pumps
Plastic tubing used for vacuum pumps (this tubing should not be reused to
avoid cross-contamination between oils)
 SAMPLING BOTTLES
HARDWARE

SIZE
 A number of different sizes of sample bottles are available. Bottle size varies from 50
milliliters (or about two ounces of fluid) to 200 ml. The most common bottle size is
100 ml. Where a con­siderable number of different tests are required, a 200 ml bottle
(or two 100 ml bottles) may be required

A general guideline for filling bottles is as follows:

 Low Viscosity (ISO VG 32 or less) — Fill to approximately three-fourths of the total
volume.
 Medium Viscosity (ISO VG 32 to ISO VG 100) — Fill to approximately two-thirds
of the total volume.
 High Viscosity (over ISO VG 100) — Fill to approximately one-half of the total
volume.
 SAMPLING BOTTLES
/HARDWARE

MATERIAL
Bottles are available in several materials. Here is a review of the most common
bottle materials:
 Plastic Polyethylene
 PET Plastic
 Glass Bottles
 SAMPLING BOTTLES
HARDWARE

Cleanliness

One of the most important considerations in selecting

sample bottle is to make sure it is sufficiently
clean. Determine the bottle's required cleanliness
level in advance. The bottle supplier should
provide, with each bottle order (or upon request),
a certificate of cleanliness that is based upon
random testing of the bottles per ISO 3722
 Clean — Fewer than 100 particles greater than 10

microns per ml of fluid.

 Super Clean — Fewer than 10 particles greater

than 10 microns per ml of fluid

 Ultra Clean — Less than 1 particle greater than

10 microns per ml of fluid.

Modern oil analysis programs typically specify

bottles to be 10 times cleaner than the fluid target
cleanliness for the same volume.
OIL SAMPLING PORTS
OIL SAMPLING PORTS
OIL SAMPLING PORTS
OIL SAMPLING PORTS
OIL SAMPLING PORTS
 Important Tips for Effective Oil Sampling

To achieve "bull's eye" oil analysis data, where oil sampling and analy­sis produce
the most representative and trendable information, follow these basic sampling
tactics:
 Machines should be running in application during sampling. That means

sampling when machines are at normal operating tempera­tures, loads,

pressures and speeds on a typical day. If that is achieved, the data will be
typical and representative as well, which is exactly what is desired.
 Always sample upstream of filters and downstream of machine com­ponents

such as bearings, gears, pistons, cams, etc. This will ensure that the data is rich
in information that properly reveals the health of the machine and contaminant
ingression. It also ensures that no data (such as particles) are being removed by
filters or separators.
 Create specific "best practice" written procedures for each system sampled.

This ensures that each sample is extracted in a consistent and correct manner.
Written procedures also help new team mem­bers quickly learn the program.
 OIL SAMPLING

 Ensure that sampling valves and sampling devices are thoroughly flushed
prior to taking the sample. Vacuum samplers and probe-on samplers should
be flushed, too, and if there are any questions about the cleanliness of the
.
bottle itself, it should also be flushed.
 Make sure that samples are taken at proper frequencies and that the
frequency is sufficient to identify common and important problems (more
on this is coming). Where possible, especially with crankcase and drivetrain
samples, record the hours on the oil. This can be a meter reading or some
other record identifying the amount of time that the oil has been in the
machine. If there has been any makeup fluid added or any change to the oil
such as the addition of addi­tives, a partial drain or anything similar,
communicate this infor­mation to the lab.
 Forward samples immediately to the oil analysis lab after sampling. The
properties of the oil in the bottle and the oil in the machine begin to drift
apart the moment after the sample is drawn. Quickly analyz­ing the sample
helps insure that quality and timely decisions are made.
 SAMPLING FRQUENCIES

 Scheduled sampling intervals are common in oil analysis. The fre­quency may be keyed to
drain intervals or operating hours. Figure 4­17 lists commonly recommended intervals based
on operating hours for different machine classes.
 Proper selection of sampling frequency must be adjusted to consid­er the following machine
and application-specific criteria:

 Penalty of Failure — Consider safety, downtime costs, repair costs and general business
interruption costs. This relates to the conse­quences of failure.
 Fluid Environment Severity — Operation and fluid environment conditions influence the
frequency and rate of failure progress. These include pressures, loads, temperature, speed,
contaminant ingression rate and system duty cycle severity. This relates to the probability of
failure.
 Machine Age — For most machines, the chances of failure are great­est during break-in and
after major repairs and overhauls. Likewise, the risk increases as a machine approaches the
end of its expected life. Increase sampling frequency during these periods.
 Oil Age — Infant oils and old oils are the highest risk. Infant oils are those that have been
recently changed and are less than 10% into remaining useful life (RUL). Occasionally, the
wrong oil is put into the machine during a change, or the new oil's condition is unsatis­factory
for service (defective or mixed). Aged in-service oils can show trends that suggest additive
depletion, the onset of oxidation or high levels of contamination. Adjust sampling frequency
accordingly.
 SAMPLING FRQUENCIES

 Risk is often defined as the probability of failure multiplied by the consequence of failure. Oil
sampling and analysis is a means of con­trolling risk. This relates closely to how frequently we
need oil analysis information (sampling frequency). In the just-stated four criteria, A addresses
the consequences of failure while B-D address the probabili­ty of failure. They all have to be
viewed collectively to make the best sampling frequency decision.
 EQUIPMENT
REGISTRATION

For those samples sent to outside oil analysis laboratories, complete and
submit the necessary machine registration information to the lab­oratory

 Machine Identification Name or Number

 Unit Type
 Manufacturer and Model of Machine or Component
 Fluid Manufacturer, Fluid Type (Name) and Grade (ISO or SAE, for instance)
 Operating Conditions
 Work Environment and Exposures
 Lubricant Application Knowledge
 Sample Bottle Labels and Identification
 Labeling sample Bottles

Sample Bottle Labels and Identification

Here is a list of common information that needs to be supplied with the oil sam­ple
(either on the label or in accompanying documentation):
 Machine identification
 Sample point
 Date sampled
 Hot or cold running conditions
 Hour meter (or approximate level of machine usage since the last sample taken)
 Last fluid change (hours on oil)
 Last addition of makeup fluid and amount
 Last major service, repair or overhaul
 Last filter change
 Reported machine/fluid abnormalities by operator or technician (foam in sightglass, varnish in
reservoir, leakage, bottom sediment, etc.)
 Requested test slate, including any required special or exception tests
Which Oil Analysis strategy to adopt
WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS
 WEAR

Wear is a progressive loss of material from the surface of a

solid, brought about by mechanical causes, i. e., by contact
and relative motion of a solid, fluid or gaseous counter body.

Signs of wear are small detached wear particles, material

removal from one friction body to the other, and material
and shape changes of the tribologicaly loaded material zone
of one or both friction partners.
 Wear Mechanisms

Wear processes can be classified into different types according to the

type of tribological load and the materials involved, e.g., sliding wear,
fretting wear, abrasive wear, and material cavitation. Wear is caused by a
number of mechanisms, the following four being especially important:

• Surface fatigue
• Abrasion
• Adhesion
• Cavitation
• Corrosion
 Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear occurs whenever a solid object is loaded against particles of
a material that have equal or greater hardness.

A common example of this problem is the wear of shovels on earth-

moving machinery. The extent of abrasive wear is far greater than may
be
Anyrealized.
material, even if the bulk of it is very soft, may cause abrasive
wear if hard particles are present. For example, an organic material,
such as sugar cane, is associated with abrasive wear of cane cutters
and shredders because of the small fraction of silica present in the
plant fibers.
A major difficulty in the prevention and control of abrasive wear is that
the term ‘Abrasive wear’ does not precisely describe the wear
mechanisms involved.
a) Fatigue b) Grain Pull Out
 Modes of Abrasive Wear

The way the grits pass over the worn surface determines the nature of abrasive
wear. The literature denotes two basic modes of abrasive wear:

Two-body abrasive Wear

Three-body abrasive wear.

Two-body abrasive wear is exemplified by the action of sand paper on a
surface. Hard asperities or rigidly held grits pass over the surface like a
cutting tool. abrasive wear the grits are free to roll as well as slide over
In three-body
the surface, since they are not held rigidly.
The two and three-body modes of abrasive wear are illustrated schematically in
Figure.

Two Body Mode

Three Body Mode

 Adhesive Wear.

Engineering surface is never perfectly flat. The surface of a most highly

polished engineering component show irregularities or asperities.

When two such surfaces are brought into contact, the real contact actually
occurs only at some high asperities which is a small fraction, e.g. 1/100 of the
apparent contacting area.
As a result, plastic deformation and intermetallic adhesion will occur, forming
cold weld junctions between the contacting asperities.
The strength of junction is determined by the surface structure and by the
mutual solubility of two contact metals.

The tendency of adhesion is the lowest for a pair of metals with almost zero
mutual solubility, but this is limited to very few metals. Most metallic materials
show appreciable tendency of adhesion.
 Adhesive wear occurs by material transfer

When two contact surfaces undergo relative movement, tearing must take place
either at the (cold weld) junction or inside the original materials depending on
which is weaker.
If the strength of the adhesion junction is relatively low, as in the case of a
contact pairs with low mutual solubility, or metallic surfaces separated by oxide
film, tearing will take place at the junction and material loss during wear will be
minimal.
If the strength of the adhesion junction is relatively low, as in the case of a
contact pairs with low mutual solubility, or metallic surfaces separated by
oxide film, tearing will take place at the junction and material loss during
wearprocess
This will be is
minimal.
known as material transfer.
The transferred fragment is plastically deformed during continued action of
sliding so that the transferred materials frequently has a plate-like
morphology. Multi-material transfer and plastic deformation of the transferred
material result in a layered surface morphology on the counter face as shown
in Fig.

Transferred layers of titanium alloy on a steel surface

 Cavitation
This is a special form of erosion in which vapor bubbles in the fluid form in
low-pressure regions and are then collapsed (imploded) in the higher-
pressure regions of the oil system.
The implosion can be powerful enough to create holes or pits, even in
hardened metal if the implosion occurs at the metal surface.

This type of wear is most common in hydraulic pumps, especially those which
have restricted suction inlets or are operating at high elevations.

Restricting the oil from entering the pump suction reduces the pressure on
the oil and, thus, tends to create more vapor bubbles. Cavitation can also
occur in journal bearings where the fluid pressure increases in the load zone
of the bearing. No metal-to-metal contact is needed to create cavitation.
Failure analysis is used to assign a wear mechanism to a specific failure. If
the wear mechanism can be determined, then some corrective action can be
applied to prevent the failure from recurring. Often, it can be useful to use the
process of elimination to determine which wear mechanisms could not have
produced the observed wear pattern, thus reducing the number of possible
mechanisms. Unfortunately, combinations of wear mechanisms exist in most
situations, thus complicating the selection of the optimum wear-resistant
system.
 Corrosion Wear
Moisture corrosion involves material removal or loss by oxidative chemical
reaction of the metal surface in the presence of moisture (water).
It is the dissolution of a metal in an electrically conductive liquid by low
amperage and may involve hydrogen embrittlement. It is accelerated, like
all chemical reactions, by increased temperatures. No metal-to-metal
contact is is
Corrosion needed. It will occur
often caused by thewith a full oil fluid
contamination film.
or degradation of
lubricants in service.
Most lubricants contain corrosion inhibitors that protect against this type of
attack.
When the lubricant additives become depleted due to extended service or
excessive contamination by moisture, combustion or other gases or process
fluids, the corrosion inhibitors are no longer capable of protecting against
the acidic (or caustic) corrosive fluid and corrosion-induced pitting can
occur. The pits will appear on the metal surface that was exposed to the
corrosive environment.
 Frictional corrosion

Is a general form of wear caused by loaded micromovements or vibration

between contacting parts without any water contaminant being present, although
humidity may be necessary. It may also be referred to as fretting wear. It
includes both fretting corrosion and false brinelling, which in the past were
often considered to be the same mechanism.
Fretting corrosion
Is the mechanical fretting wear damage of surface asperities accompanied and
escalated by corrosion, mostly oxidation in air with some humidity present.

It occurs due to many oscillating micromovements at contacting interfaces

between loaded and mating parts in which the lubricant has not been
replenished (an unlubricated contact).
Fretting corrosion occurs on many mechanical devices such as gear teeth and
splines, not just rolling element bearings, and can occur on surfaces other than
the rolling contact.
In bearings, it is also associated with bearing fit on the shaft and in the
housing.
 Surface-initiated Fatigue
This begins with reduced lubrication regime and a loss of the normal lubricant
film.
The oil film is reduced to boundary or a mixed regime. Some metal-to-metal
contact and sliding motion occurs. Surface damage occurs.
The high points of the metal surface asperities are removed, which initially
appear as a matted or frosted surface. This is not smearing, as in adhesion
(discussed below). This type of surface damage is usually visible with a
magnification of three to five times.
The surface damage is coupled with the cyclic loading of the rollers rolling over
the race. This creates asperity microcracks and micros palling.
The cracks start at the surface and migrate down into the metal.
The cracks propagate and may intersect within the metal, and a piece of surface
material is then removed. Flaking, mechanical pitting and micropitting are other
names used to describe spalling.

Surface fatigue can also occur as a result of plastic deformation (described

below).
Contaminant particles in the oil enter the high-load rolling contact area between
rollers and the race, or between gear teeth, and cause some form of surface
damage - a dent. Improper handling of bearings can cause similar surface
damage.

These round-bottomed dents often have a raised berm around their edges.
The raised berm of metal acts as a point of increased load or stress, or creates
a reduced lubrication regime (mixed or boundary), and leads to a lower
surface fatigue life. Improved filtration reduces plastic deformation, and
therefore indirectly reduces the occurrence of surface fatigue.

Notice that the term "contact fatigue" is not used by ISO.

 Mechanical causes of machine failure- oil wetted
components
70% of equipment downtime is due to surface degradation - Corrosion and Wear

ROOT CAUSES MECHANISM CAUSES

water or other Water in oil, degraded oil, process

corrosive fluids contamination, coolant,
20%
CORROSION chemically attacks and condensation…
weakens metal surfaces

3-Body Cutting damage

ABRASION from abrasive particles
Abrasive particles in oil, dirt,
secondary wear, process
between two moving
contamination…
surfaces

50% Inadequate lubrication- low

wear
ADHESION Damage from metal
viscosity oil or no oil, high
surfaces dragging over
temperature, excess load, slow
each other
machine speed…

Damage from micro- Misalignment, imbalance,

FATIGUE cracks caused by cyclic improper fit or assembly,
loading secondary damage…

ASLE Bearing Workshop, Rabinowicz, 1981

 Wear debris analysis

Wear debris analysis (WDA) is an attempt to

WDA determine the condition of machinery through
the examination of the particles generated by
wear process.
 Wear debris
analysis
Procedure steps

Obtain an oil sample from a machine.

The sample is then diluted with a solvent.

Draw the sample through a membrane filter or use a

magnetic separation technique such as the rotary particle
depositor to separate the solids from the fluid.

In the laboratory take a measured amount of the fluid and

deposit into a clean beaker.
 Wear debris analysis
Procedure steps
Wear debris analysis is a relatively simple procedure not requiring a
high skills level to perform.

Repeat the procedure at a decided time interval.

Even so the results give a direct indication as to the level of threat

and damage within industrial drives absent from some of the more
sophisticated techniques.
 Microscopic Contaminant and Wear Particle
Identification
When abnormal wear metals have been identified by other methods (including
particle counting, elemental spectroscopy and/or ferrous density analysis), a
common and important exception test to perform next is microscopic particle
examination and identification. The most common version of the procedure is
referred to as analytical ferrogra­phy. Analytical ferrography involves the analysis
of debris deposited onto a ferrogram slide (aided by a magnet) or alternatively a
filtergram
Using membrane.
an optical microscope (typically with both bottom and top lighting), the
particle morphology (shape), color, size, reflectivity, sur­face appearance, edge
detail, angularity and relative concentration pro­vides the analyst with clues about
the nature, severity and root cause of the contaminant ingression or wear
problem. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) also can be used to examine
particles as well as their elemental composition using an Energy Dispersive
Spectroscopy (EDS) feature. Many ferrograms can be heated on a hot plate to 330°
C to help reveal the composition of particles.
Analytical Ferrography,Preparation Of Ferrogram
WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS(PARTICLE
IDENTIFICATION)
Laboratory Equipment – Particle Identification “LaserNet Fines*”
FILTERGRAM ANALYSIS
 Elemental Spectroscopy

Elemental spectroscopy quantifies the presence of dissolved and some

undissolved inorganic materials by ele­ment in the oil. Nearly all elemental
spectrometers used today for oil analysis are the atomic emission type.

These instruments work by exposing the sample to extreme temperatures

generated by an arcing electrode commonly referred to as a rotating disc
electrode (RDE).
Another common method uses an argon plasma torch to vaporize the sample.
This is known as an inductive coupled plasma spectrome­ter (ICP). Refer to
Figure 5-22 for the basic anatomy of these two common types of
spectrometers. The extreme heat excites the atoms in the sample, causing them
to emit energy in the form of light. Each atomic element emits light at a
specific frequency.
 Elemental Spectroscopy

The spectrometer quantifies the amount of light generated at these frequencies,

which is mathematically translated into concentration of each element (iron,
lead, tin, etc.) in parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb).
Most elemental spectrometers report the concentration of 15 or more elements.
The elements reported can provide an indication of increased generation of
wear, ingress of contamination or depletion of certain additive elements.
Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is particle-size limited. Dissolved metals
and suspended particles up to approximately 2 microns are detected with high
accuracy. The accuracy diminishes as particle size increases up to 5 microns.
Elemental concentrations can be greatly understated for particles larger than 5
microns.
Spectrometer
 XRF SPECTROSCOPY
A less-common alternative method is X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF),
which is not particle-size limited like conven­tional AES spectrometers. SRF
also doesn't require the sample to be in a liquid form and is often used with
grease, sludge, filter debris, magnetic plug debris, etc. However, these
instruments are hampered by the fact that they're lower limit of sensitivity
ranges higher than ICP and RDE technologies.
In other words, they can't measure and report low concentrations of calcium,
chromium and copper when compared to ICP and RDE. This is a non-
standardized method in lubrication applications.
Increasing decreasing elemental concentration can signal a change in the
generation of wear debris, the ingress of contaminants and the addition or
depletion of additives.
WEAR ELEMENTS AND THEIR SOURCE
 Diagnosing non-conform­ing elemental data:

An increase in the concentration of such elements as iron, copper, chromium, tin,

aluminum and leads suggest that abnormal wear is occurring. Further steps should
include analysis of the debris with complementary testing to determine its severity,
nature, origin and root cause

Increasing concentration of silicon, sodium, boron, calcium and magnesium can

signal the ingress of contamination. A lock-step increase in silicon and aluminum
typically suggests dirt ingress, although silicon also is the primary element found
in anti-foaming additives (silicone), which can cause confusing results. Increasing
levels of sodium and boron may signal the ingestion of glycol-based
coolant.Calcium and magnesium are often pres­ent when hard water is ingested due
to spraydowns or cooling sys­tem leaks, but they also are common elements found
in engine oil additives.
 Diagnosing
non-conform­ing elemental data

Numerous elements are used in a multitude of additives. For instance, zinc and
phosphorous are common in anti-wear additives; sulfur, phosphorous and
molybdenum are common components of extreme-pressure additives; and calcium
and magnesium are fre­quently components of engine oil alkalinity improvers.
Knowledge of the new oil baseline is critical to trending additive depletion with
elemental spectroscopy (see kin fig.)
Applicable standards: ASTM D4951 (ICP, additives), ASTM D5185 (ICP,
additives, wear metals and contaminants), ASTM D6595 (RDE, additives, wear
metals and contaminants), and ASTM D7303­06 (metals in grease by ICP)
 Wear Metals and Possible Sources

Heat
Engine Bearing Gear Transmission Hydraulic Exchanger
Compressor Turbine
System

Cylinder Liners, Rolling element Bull gears, Gears, bearings, Pump, motor, Rotary Screw, lobes, Reduction gear,
Piston Rings, Valve Bearings: rollers pinions, case Brake bands, clutch, vanes, pump vanes, connecting shaft, bearings,
train, Crankshaft, (tungsten alloyed hardened teeth, shift spools, pumps, housing, cylinder rods, rocker arm, piping, case
rocker arms, spring steel), raceways and locking pins power take off bores and rods, bearings, cylinders,
Iron cages,
gears, lock washers, Journal Bearings:
(PTO) servo valves, housing, shafts, roller
nuts, pins, connecting Journal shaft, pistons bearings (see above)
rods, Engine Blocks, bearing Shoe backing oil pump, piston rings
Oil pump Locking keys

Valve train bushing, Rolling element Bushings, thrust Clutches, steering Pump thrust Cooler bearings, cylinder Bearings (see
Wrist pin bushing, Bearings: alloyed washers discs, bearings plates, bushings, tubes, guides, wear plates, bearing section)
Cam bushings, Oil element in cages, cylinder gland baffles, thrust washers, piping, coolers
Cooler core, Thrust Journal Bearings: guides, pump plates bearings (see above)
Copper washers, governor, journal bearing pistons, oil oil pump, oil coolers,
connecting rods pads, slinger rings, coolers thermostats, separator
bearings, valve gear Locking keys filters
train thrust buttons

Valve train bushing, Rolling element Bushings Clutches, steering Pump thrust bearings, separator Bearings
Wrist pin bushing, Bearings: alloyed discs, bearings plates, bushings, filters (see bearing
Cam bushings, Oil element in cages, Can be a residue
Cooler core, Thrust Journal Bearings: from catalyst in section)
Tin washers, governor, journal bearing some oils piping,
connecting rods pads (babbited) (Quinto lubric coolers
bearings, valve gear series)
train thrust buttons

Engine blocks, Rolling element Bushings, thrust Bushings, clutches Cylinder gland Cooler Housing, bearings, Bearings(see
pistons, blowers, Oil Bearings: alloyed washers, grease (some) pump, tubes, cylinder guides, wear above) piping,
pump bushings, element in cages, contamination motor pistons, oil baffles, plates, thrust washers, coolers
bearings (some) Cam Locking keys coolers. plates bearings (see above), EHC Systems:
Aluminum bushings(some) , Oil Aluminum oil pump, oil coolers Residue from
coolers (some) complex grease synthetic media
contaminant (alumina) filters
 Wear Metals and Possible Sources (Cont.)
Engine Bearing Gear Trans- Hydraulic Heat Compressor Turbine
mission System Exchanger

Rings, Liners, exhaust Rolling element Bearings(some) Bearings, Cylinder Housing, bearings, Shaft coating
Chromium cylinder guides,
valves, zinc chromate Bearings: alloyed , shaft coatings, water liners, (some)
from cooling system /coated element in some special treatment rods, wear plates, thrust bearings
inhibitor rollers, tapers gears are spools washers, bearings
chrome plated (see above), oil
pump, oil coolers
Lead Main Bearings, Rolling element Bearings, can Bearings Bearings Bearings
connecting rod Bearings: alloyed also be red lead
bearings. element in cages, paint flakes
Lead can be present as Journal Bearings: from gear case
a contaminant from Major alloying walls
Gasoline (Leaded gas) element in Babbitt
(Octane improver, bearings, alloying
anti-knock compound) elements

Silicon Engine blocks Rolling element Bushings, Brake shoes, Elastome Ingested dirt, Ingested dirt,
(alloying element with Bearings: alloyed thrust washer, clutch ric seals silicone sealant, silicone
aluminum parts), element with silicone plates, (some) bearings, cooler sealant,
ingested dirt from aluminum in cages sealant, ingested dirt pump, (alloyed with defoamant
breathers, external defoamant motor aluminum) additive
sources. Can also be additive pistons,
from defoamant oil
additive in lubricant coolers

Silver Bearings (alloying Bearings, Baffle &

element) wrist pins, oil tube
turbochargers (EMD coolers solder
railroad engines)

Nickel Valves, Valve guides, Rolling element Alloying Bearings, Bearings Bearings, shaft,
Cylinder liners, Bearings: alloyed element for servo reduction gears
Bearings. Can also be element in rollers, tool steel gears valve
from heavy fuel races plating
contamination pumps,
pistons
 Heat Treatment

The heat can alter the color of the particle to reveal its composition. The following
describes how some particles change in color from heat exposure according to
composition differences.
Copper Alloys: Yellow before and after heat treatment
Aluminum Alloys: Heat treat doesn't affect color
Stainless steel: Slight straw color when heated
ead/Tin Babbitt: White color, mottled blue, purple when heated
Copper/Lead Babbitt: Yellow color; becomes yellow with blue/purple mottling
w-alloywhen
steel heated
(exposed to progressive heating):light tan » straw color » blue/violet » pale blu
 Wear Particle Progression to Failure
Wear Particle Concentration (WPC)

Catastrophic Failure

Advanced Failure Mode

• Large particles are the most

Onset of Severe Wear Mode indicative of progression to
advanced failure.
• Some failure modes generate
Benign Wear only large wear particles.

0.1 1 10 100 1,000

Wear Particle Size in µm (micrometers)

 Wear Particle Size Detection Capability of Various Techniques

Spectrometer Ferrography
100%

ICP/AAS RDE
Detection Efficiency, %

50%

0 1 10 100 1000
Wear Particle Size µm
SUMMARY
Lubricant health monitoring
LUBRICANTS FAILURE MECHANISM

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 LUBRICANTS FAILURE MECHANISM

 Oxidative Degradation
Oxidation is the primary mechanism of lubricant degradation. It is also
widely known that oxidized oil can’t effectively lubricate machines

Oxidation is the reaction of oil molecules with oxygen molecules. It can

lead to an increase in viscosity and the formation of varnish, sludge and
sediment. Additive depletion and a breakdown in the base oil can also
result. Once an oil starts to oxidize, you may see an increase in the acid
number. In addition, rust and corrosion can form on the equipment due to
oxidation.

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 Oxidation of Oils – Oil Aging

Oxidation of Oils – Oil Aging

•The 4 Catalysts of Oxidation:
Heat, Air, Water & Metal Catalysts

Oxidation = Leads to Varnish formation, Increased viscosity, acids

and oils darkening

Oxidation - Lubricating molecules reacting with oxygen (more

dominating)
Thermal Decomposition - Molecular cracking at high temperature (less dominating)
OIL Varnish
VARNISH FORMATION
Common Problems due to Oil
Varnishing
VARNISH REMOVAL
VARNISH REMOVAL TECHNOLOGY

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Common Problems due to Oil
Varnishing
LUBRICANTS FAILURE MECHANISM

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 LUBRICANTS FAILURE MECHANISM

 Thermal Degradation

The temperature of the lubricant should be a primary concern. Besides

separating the moving parts within a piece of machinery, a lubricant must
also dissipate heat. This means the lubricant can and will be heated above
its recommended stable temperature. The Arrhenius rate rule for
temperature states that for every 18 degrees F (10 degrees C), the chemical
reaction doubles. In other words, for every increase of 18 degrees F for
your oil, the life of the oil is cut in half. Keeping the oil as cool as possible
when in use will extend its life and reduce the reaction of thermal
breakdown.

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LUBRICANTS FAILURE MECHANISM

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LUBRICANTS FAILURE MECHANISM

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 ADDITIVES DEGRADATION

Additives are essential for modern oils, but have their

limitations
Additives do not all last forever, they are there to do a job.
Once used, the additives are usually changed irreversibly,
and are of no further use.

It is important to monitor the strength of additives in bulk

quantity oils that are under condition based replacement
strategy.

There are three ways for additives to be removed from a

system
•Decomposition
•Separation
•Adsorption
 Additive Depletion – Decomposition and
Separation

Additives can be separated from the oil by

“Decomposition” resulting in acid formation.
• Neutralization (base/detergents)
• Shear Down (chemical splitting)
• Thermal Degradation
• Hydrolysis (in presence of water and heat)
• Oxidation

Additives can be “separated” or removed from the oil by “Mass

Transfer”
• Conventional Evaporation and form vacuum dehydration units
• Filtration – Solid particles which cannot be dissolved
• Condensation setting – dead spot, large sump, downtime and storage
• Centrifugation – High centrifugal forces can remove dense additives
• Aggregate Adsorption – removes polar additives in absorptive
media such a fuller’s earth
 Additive Adsorption

Additives can attach, embed or dissolve out of the oil

•Rubbing Contact – Friction modifier additives form soap like
boundary films on active metal surfaces
•Particle Scrubbing – Additives attach to particles and are lost in the
filter or sump
•Water Washing – Water drags additive to sump floor or is removed
with the water
•Surface Absorption – Polar additives adhere to fresh machine
surfaces

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 Typical Additive Depletion Causes
Causes Depletion Mechanism Affected Additives

Excessive heat and oxidation reaction – heat, air, water Sacrificial additives decompose in the presence of reactive Anti-oxidants, oxidation inhibitors and some anti-wear
and wear debris. compounds. additives (ZDDP).

Particle scrubbing – high solid and wear debris levels. Polar particles with surface active additives are removed by Anti-oxidants, friction modifier additives, rust & corrosion
filtration and setting. inhibitor, detergent & dispersants.

Water washout & Hydrolysis Polar water attracts additives which are lost when the Rust & corrosion inhibitor, emulsifiers, dispersants,
water is removed. Also water react with some additives. some anti-oxidants and anti-wear (ZDDP).

Boundary lubrication – abrasion & poor film strength. The higher the AW film removal rate, the higher the rate Anti-oxidants, AW, EP and rust & corrosion inhibitor.
of additive depletion.

Diesel engine combustion by- products – blow-by, fuel Sulphuric acid contamination form the fuel neutralise the Alkalinity improvers (detergents, dispersants and
dilution, poor quality fuel. over-based detergents.
additives. Dispersants suspend soot partCiocplyerisgh.t
OIL ANALYSIS/FLUID
PROPERTIES TESTS
 OIL
ANALYSIS/ONSITE/OFFSIT
E
 The objectives of used oil analysis

The objectives of used oil analysis are:

 To evaluate the condition or age of oils that are in service,

 To detect and measure harmful foreign suspensions

(contaminants),
 To eval­uate the condition of the machine being lubricated.
 Reasons for Performing Oil Analysis

The following are examples of questions that may need

to be answered:

Lubricant Type/Quality Questions:

 Has the appropriate lubricant been specified?

 Is the specified lubricant being used?

 What is the quality and condition of newly delivered lubricants?
 Have two incompatible greases or lubricants been mixed?
 Reasons for Performing Oil Analysis

Lubricant Health/Condition Questions:

 Have any critical additives become depleted or impaired?

 Has the base oil been damaged by oxidation, hydrolysis or ther­mal degradation?

 Has there been a change in interfacial tension affecting air release, foaming and

demulsibility properties?
 Has the oil's viscosity changed due to evaporation, shear, radia­tion, contamination

or various chemical reactions?

 What is the residual life of the lubricant?

 Is a lubricant in a storage container fit for service?

Lubricant Contamination Questions:

 Has the lubricant been cross-contaminated (mixed) with other fluids or lubricants?

 Has the lubricant become contaminated with fuel, soot, dirt, water, process

chemicals or coolant?
 Has the lubricant been damaged by radiological contamination? Is it a hot sample?
 Reasons for Performing Oil Analysis

Wear and Fault Detection Questions:

 Is there incipient evidence of abnormal wear?
 Which component or machine surface is generating the wear?
 What is the tribological cause of the wear?
 Does the oil contain evidence of abnormal operational or mechan­ical wear conditions such as
misalignment or over-loading?
 How severe (advanced) or threatening is the wear?

Miscellaneous Failure Root Cause Questions:

 Is the oil prone to laying down surface deposits, varnish and sludge?
 Is the oil highly acidic with suspended corrosion agents?
 Has there been sabotage or criminal activity associated with the condition of a machine and lubricants?
 Does a new machine have manufacturing defects?
 Reasons for Performing Oil Analysis

Maintenance, Operations and Commissioning Questions:

 Does a filter need to be changed or is there need to service a sep­arator?

 Is there internal or external leakage?

 Has a machine been properly installed (commissioned)?

 Is there a need to perform certain internal inspections during a shutdown period?

 Has a bearing been over-greased or under-greased?

 Is there evidence of abnormal operating temperatures, pressures or duty cycle?

 Is it time to decommission a machine?

 Has a machine been properly repaired or rebuilt?

8 steps to Oil Analysis Success
OIL SAMPLING FREQUENCIES
OIL SAMPLING FREQUENCIES
 Fluid Properties Analysis

This category of oil analysis deals with the assessment

of the chemical, physical and additive properties of the
oil. Its primary goals are to define the remaining useful
life (RUL) of the lubricant as well as to confirm that the
correct lubri­cant is currently being used. It also can
detect mixed lubricants.
OIL ANALYSIS PROGRAMME WHAT SHOULD BE INCLU
OIL ANALYSIS PROGRAMME WHAT OTHER TESTS
OIL ANALYSIS PROGRAMME,APPEARNCE,SMELL
 Viscosity.

Kinematic viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance to flow under

gravitational forces. It is determined by measuring the time, in seconds, required for
a fixed volume of fluid to flow a known dis­tance by gravity through a capillary within a
calibrated viscometer at a closely controlled temperature (ASTM D445 or ISO 3105).
This value is converted to standard units such as centistokes (cSt) or square millimeters
per second (mm-'/sec). Viscosity reporting is only valid when the tempera­ture at which
the test was conducted also is reported — e.g., 32 cSt at 40° C (see Figure 5-6).


 Viscosity Grade

The most crucial property of the lubricant!

It affects both wear and energy

consumption!

Viscosity grading-
Any of a number of grading systems which characterize
lubricants according to viscosity for particular application,
such as industrial oils, gear oils, automotive engine oils,
automotive gear oils and aircraft piston engine oils

Examples: ISO VG32, SAE 5W-30

Temperature and Viscosity Monograde vs Multi-grade
 Kinematic Viscosity Units and Relationships

Kinematic Viscosity (ASTM D445)

A measure
forces of the oil’s resistance to flow and shear with respect to the
of gravity
1 mm²/s = 10² stoke (st) = 1 centistoke (cSt)

Standard in Oil Industry: Kinematic Viscosity quoted at

Primary at 40°C
Secondary at 100°C

Relationship:
Dynamic viscosity = Kinematic Viscosity x Density
Or cP = cSt x SG (Specific Gravity)
COMMON CAUSES OF VISCOSITY CHANGES
 Viscosity Index (VI) – Operational Information

A commonly used measure of a

fluid’s change of viscosity with
temperature

The higher the viscosity index, the

smaller the relative change in
viscosity with temperature
Typical VI ranges ≥80
Common Mineral ≥95
Oils ≥120
Hydrotreated/ ≥300
Hydrocracked
MO’s
VI can be modified with the use of additives called VI Improvers.
Polyalphaolefines
Guidelines
PAO Values:
Factory 60-100 Outdoors 95-130 Extreme Cold 130-170+
Silicones
Tables for calculating VI from the measured kinematic viscosity of an oil at 40°C and 100°C are referenced i
D2270
Viscosity Index (VI) – Operational Information
Comparative Viscosity Grades
 Viscosity.

Most industrial lubricants are classified

according to ISO standard­ized viscosity
grades (ISO 3448). As shown in Figure 5-
7, the mid­point of each viscosity grade is a
50% increment above the previous grade
(with some rounding). For instance, the
ISO VG 15 is 50% higher than the
previous grade of 10, and so forth. The
viscosity grades are based on kinematic
viscosity at 40° C. An oil is said to be "in
grade" if its viscosity is within +1- 10% of
the midpoint viscosity at 40° C.
SAE Engine Oil Viscosity Grades

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SAE Gear Oil Viscosity Grades

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Viscosity Effects
 VISCOSITY DIAGNOSTICS

Investigate the source of viscosity change by analyzing under- or over-limit viscosity according to the flow
model described in Figure 5­8. As required, refer to the following tests as collateral information to determine the
root cause of the problem:
 Summary of the Basic Rules Of Viscosity Selection (Important)

◦ The lower the starting and/or operating temperature, the lighter or

thinner the selected oil should be.
◦ The higher the starting or operating temperature, the heavier or
thicker the selected oil should be.
◦ The higher the load a component is subjected to, the heavier or thicker
oil should be.
◦ The lighter the load a component is subjected to, the lighter or
thinner the oil should be .
◦ The faster the operating speed for a piece of equipment, the lighter or
thinner the oil should be. The slower the operating speed for a piece
of equipment , the heavier or thicker the oil should be.
◦ There is no advantage in using heavier oil than is needed. In fact, it
can be a disadvantage.
◦ Remember, too low (thin or light) = Metal-to-metal contact(friction
and wear), poor sealing and increased oil consumption·Too
high(thick or heavy) = Increased fluid friction , reduced energy
efficiency, higher operating temperatures and equipment starting
difficulties particularly at cold temperatures.
Viscosity Selection
 Grease Consistency

Grease consistency is its ability to resist deformation by an

applied mechanical force (penetration by a cone).

An important characteristics of grease is its thickness or

consistency. Grease consistency can vary from a solid to a
semi-fluid consistency. The National Lubricating Grease
institute (NLGI) has a numbering system to classify greases. A
standardized ASTM test (D217) using a cone of a specific
weight (102.5g) that is allowed to sink into the grease for 5
seconds at 25°C is used to measure consistency
But don’t forget viscosity is still an issue
 Grease Selection and Importance of Properties
Type of Component

Lubricant Property Plain Rolling Closed Gears Open Gears, Ropes, Clock and Hinge, Slides
Journal Bearing Chains, etc Instruments Pivots , Latches, etc.
Bearing

1.Boundary lubricating properties 1 2 3 2 2 1

2.Cooling 2 2 3 _ _ _

3.Friction or torque 1 2 2 _ 2 1

4.Ability to remain in bearing 1 2 _ 1 3 1

5.Ability to seal out _ 2 _ 1 _ 1

contaminants

6.Temperature range 1 2 2 1 _ 1

7.Protection against corrosion 1 2 _ 2 _ 1

8.Volatlity 1 1 _ 2 2 1

Note: The relative importance of each lubricant property in a particular class of component is indicative on a scale of 3 = highly important to - = quite important. Reference: Neale,
M.J. , Lubrication: A Tribology Handbook. Butterwiorth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford England
 Volatility – Safety/Operational Related Information

Volatility (NOACK)

The NOACK Volatility Test, known as ASTM D-5800, determines the evaporation loss of
lubricants in high-temperature service.
Determines the gravimetric loss of formulated lubricants when exposed to 250°C for one
hour.
(ATSM D5800 / DIN 51581, Grease ASTM D2595).
Volatility – the smaller base oil molecules tend to evaporate off at high temperatures
resulting in:
• High oil consumption
• Increased viscosity of the remaining oil
• Increased consistency (thickness) of greases
• Safety and health risks from poor air quality

Volatility is reduced the higher the API Base Stock Group (III>II>I) The test is
usually applied to automotive and gear oils.
The lower the result the better as it shows less oil is lost through vaporization from the
sump. A good result is less than 3.5%
 Pour Point
Pour Point – Operational Information

The Pour Point is the lowest temperature at which an oil or distillate fuel is
observed to flow, when cooled under conditions prescribed by test
method ASTM D 97.

The pour point is 3°C (5°F) above the temperature at which the oil in a
test vessel shows no movement when the container is held horizontally
for five seconds

Pour Function: How it works: Typical

Point Prevents the Formulation:
Depres Lowers the natural crystallization of Alkylated wax
sant pour points the waxes by napthalene,
Additiv temperature. modifying the polymethacrylates,
es interface alkylated wax
between the wax phenol.
and the oil.
 Acid Number (AN).

This method is primarily used for non-crankcase industrial lubricants. The acid number
(AN) is a measure of the acid concentration of the oil. It does not measure acid strength
(like pH). The AN is a titration test method, and results are expressed as the volume
(milligrams) of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neu­tralize the acidic components
in one gram of sample oil. The reported unit is mg KOH/gm of oil. AN can be quantified
by either colorimetric (color change) or potentiometric (electrical voltage change) titration
methods (see Figure 5-9). For dark-colored oils, use the latter method.
Acid Number (AN).
ACID TYPES AND THEIR SORUCES
 Causes
 A slow increase in AN over a long period of use is considered nor­mal for
certain lubricants. However, once an upper limit is reached, the oil will
need to be changed. In other lubricants, any significant change in AN is
reportable and may be a cause for concern.

Rapid change in AN may be due to one or more of the following events:

 Severe oxidation of oil.
 Depletion of some additives (anti-wear, EP and rust-preventing).
 Large makeup of the incorrect oil such as anti-wear hydraulic oils or gear oils that
have high baseline AN values.
. Employ the following collateral test as required to determine the prob­lem's root cause:

 Elemental spectroscopy
 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
 Moisture detection or quantification

 Viscosity
 Rotating pressure vessel oxidation test (RPVOT)
 Linear sweep voltametry

Applicable standards: ASTM D664, ASTM D974, ASTM D1534 (transformer oils)
and ASTM D3339
 Base Number (BN)

Applied primarily to engine crankcase applications, the

BN measures the reserve alkalinity of an oil. Engine
oils are equipped with over-based additives (high
alkalinity) that can neutralize the acids that are
generated during combustion and enter the crankcase
oil from blow-by. Once the reserve alkalinity is
depleted through normal consumption as the oil ages,
the oil can become high­ly corrosive.
 BN test

Like the AN test, the BN test is performed by colorimetric or poten­tiometric

titration (usually potentiometric due to the darkness of engine oil) (see Figure 5-
9). But in the case of the BN, the alkaline oil is neutralized with hydrochloric
(preferred for used oil analysis) or per­chloric acid. Results are reported in mg
KOH/gram of oil, same as the AN test, which can be confusing. The result is
actually a derived value that represents the volume of KOH (potassium
hydroxide) that is required to neutralize the volume of BN reagent acid
(hydrochloric acid) that is required to neutralize the reserve alkalinity of the
sample being tested. In this way, the units are synchronized (i.e., one unit of BN
neutralizes one unit of AN).
BN numbers trend steadily downward as the oil's reserve alkalinity is depleted by acids from
combustion and base oil oxidative. Rapid change in BN may be caused by one or more of the
following:
 Burning high-sulfur fuel
 Abnormal fuel dilution
 Poor combustion
 Excessive blow-by
 Hot running conditions
 Severe oxidation
 Overextended drain interval
 Wrong oil addition
 Glycol contamination

Interpret BN numbers according to the flow model on Figure 5-11. If BN numbers change rapidly,
determine the root cause and enact cor­rective actions.

Applicable standards: ASTM D974, ASTM D2896, ASTM D4739 and ASTM D5984-96
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy.
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy.
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy.
 Ferrous Density

Ferrous Density is used for determining the concentra­tion of large ferrous

debris.
An, increase in the population of large (greater than 5 microns) ferrous
particles usually suggests the presence of an abnormal wear condition and
should serve as a warning of impending failure.
Causes
Contamination, poor lubrication and adverse mechanical condi­tions are the
usual causes of high ferrous particles
Ferrous Density
 Rotating Pressure Vessel Oxidation Test
(RPVOT).

This test method (also known as the rotating bomb oxidation test) utilizes an
oxygen-pressured vessel (bomb) to evaluate the oxidation stability of the
sample oil at high temperatures in the presence of water and a copper catalyst
coil. The vessel is charged with oxygen to a pressure of 620 kPa (90 psi),
placed in a constant-temperature oil bath at 150° C, and rotated axially at 100
rpm at an angle of 30 degrees. The number of minutes required to reach a
specific drop in gauge pressure for a used oil is compared to the reference
number of min­utes required for a new oil.
 Rotating Pressure Vessel Oxidation Test
(RPVOT).

If the oxidative life is normal or in a safe range, no additional testing or

action is required. If the RUL is abnormal (short), consider the fol­lowing
corrective actions

•Reduce oxidative stress (heat, air, water and reactive metals)

•Upgrade base oil quality
•Upgrade the oil's antioxidant additive package (confirm effective­ness by
laboratory testing first)
•Change the oil or do a partial drain and fill

Applicable standard: ASTM

D2272
Rotating Pressure Vessel Oxidation Test
(RPVOT).

Applicable standard: ASTM

D2272
 Flash Point Test and Fuel Dilution

The flash point, when used to analyze used oils, can identify the
presence of volatile molecules from fuel and other flammable
contaminants. A lubricant's flash point is the lowest temperature
at which an ignition source (small flame) applied to the oil's
surface causes the vapors of the lubricant to ignite under
specified conditions.
Many laboratories simply test up to a specified temperature,
say 20° C below the oil's normal flash point. If the oil flashes
at this lower tem­perature, it can be reliably assumed that it has
been diluted with fuel or another low-boiling-point flammable
liquid. This pass/fail use of the flash point test reduces the
time to perform the test as well as its cost
Flash Point Test and Fuel Dilution
WATER BY CRACKLE
 WATER BY KARL FISCHER

Applicable Karl
Fischer
standards:
ASTM D1744-
volumen tric
(with­drawn but
still in active
use) and ASTM
D6304-98-
coulometric
 ADVANTAGES OF KARL FISCHER

The popularity of the Karl Fischer titration is due in large part to several practical
advantages that it holds over other methods of moisture determination, including:
 01. High accuracy and precision
 02. Selectivity for water
 03. Small sample quantities required
 04. Easy sample preparation
 05. Short analysis duration
 06. Nearly unlimited measuring range (1ppm to 100%)
 07. Suitability for analyzing:
 Ø Solids
 Ø Liquids
 Ø Gases
 08. Independence of presence of other volatiles
 09. Suitability for automation
 10. In contrast, loss on drying will detect the loss of any volatile substance.
WATER DIAGNOSIS
SPECTROSCOPY
PARTICLE QUANTIFICATION
PARTICLE QUANTIFICATION
 Particle Counting.

Particle Counting.

 Particle counting is considered to be one of the most valuable test methods in fluid analysis, and
its use dates back to the 1960s. The particle count test reports the number of particles above
specified size ranges (in microns) per fluid volume (usually per 1 ml or 100 ml). Also, particle
concentration and distribution data may be expressed in terms of ISO 4406:99 Cleanliness
Codes (Figure 5-2) or by other less frequently used codification systems such as the revised SAE
AS 4059E (formerly NAS 1638).
 What follows are common causes for non-conforming particle count
readings:

 Sampling Error — Poor control over sampling procedures will result in false positive or
false negative particle count readings depending on the nature of the sampling process failure.
It is always advised to resample and retest when a high or low particle count is observed to
eliminate sampling error from the list of possible causes.
 Instrument Error — A particle counter is subject to calibration-relat­ed errors like any
instrument. Regularly verify the calibration of the instrument.
 Testing Procedure Error — You must aggressively agitate samples with a paint shaker or
other suitable method before testing com­mences to evenly disperse the particles in the oil.
Likewise, when using an optical particle counter, completely remove or dissolve entrained
air and suspended water prior to testing.
 Dirt Ingestion — Dirt entering the system through seals, breathers and new oil will lead to
an increased particle count
Filter Failure — When a filter is full and in bypass, or fails in some way, the particle
count will increase. Diagnose this according to the flow chart in Figure 5-5.

Generated Wear — When machine components are abraded or fatigued, wear particles
are released into the oil, causing an increase in particle count. Diagnose this according to
the flow chart in Figure 5-5.
 Proactive and Predictive uses for Parti­cle Counting

Proactive Maintenance:

1. Routinely verify that in-service oils are within targeted cleanli­ness levels

2. Check the cleanliness of new oil deliveries

3. Quickly identify failed or defective filters

4. Confirm that seals and breathers are effectively excluding con­taminants

5. Confirm that systems are properly cleaned and flushed after repair

6. Confirm that new hydraulic systems are cleaned and flushed before use (roll-off
cleanliness)

7. Identify the improper use of dirty top-up containers and poor maintenance practices

8. Identify the need and timing for portable filtration systems

Predictive Maintenance:

1. Identify early stage abnormal machine wear

2. Identify the location/source of abnormal wear by multi-point isolating methods

3. Verify the effectiveness of corrective maintenance and botched repair jobs

4. Monitor machine break-in progress by wear particle generation

5. Identify abnormal rust and corrosion debris generation

6. Serve as an effective screen for wear debris analysis (e.g., analyt­ical ferrography)

Applicable particle count standards: ISO 11171, ISO 4406, ISO 11500, ASTM
D6786, FTM 3012, FTM 3010, ISO 4407, BS 3406 and ISO/DIS 21018
DEMULSIBILITY
Best Practice includes Storage and Handling of machines and spares ?
Avoid this kind of Storage Damage
Avoid this kind of Storage Damage
Lubricant Storage Best Practice
Lubricant Storage Enviroment
Some Examples
Some Examples
Some Examples
What happens if Oil drums stored Outdoor Vertically ?
Responsibilities in a Best Practice Oil Storage Area
Reasons for Setting Up a Best Practice Storage Area
Moving Drums safely
Best Practice for Oil Drums
Best Practice for Cabinets and Cupboards
Best Practice for Drums and pumps
Best Practice for Drums and pumps
Lubrication Handling & Dispensing