Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Learning 1
(Prof Ed 6 )
III. This is a course that focuses on the principles, development and utilization of
conventional assessment tools to improve the teaching-learning process. It
emphasizes on the use of Assessment of, as and for, in measuring knowledge,
comprehension, and other thinking skills in the cognitive, psychomotor or affective
domains. It allows students to go through the standard steps in test construction and
development and the application in grading systems.
V. STUDENT OUTCOMES
Student Outcomes
After graduation, the students should have
1. Acquired knowledge on the basicconcepts and principles
on test, measurement, assessment and evaluation.
2. Acquired skills in constructing pen and paper test.
3. Used assessment data in developing different assessment tools.
4. Disseminated concepts and principles on test, measurement, assessment and
evaluation to peers.
5. Established linkages and/or partnership with other programs in developing
standardized tests.
UNIT I – PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS AND RECENT TRENDS
OVERVIEW
You have now reached tertiary or your advanced degree in your education. You have reached this
far because you have effectively passed all the prerequisites in your basic education. In your long stretches of
schooling from elementary to high school, I am certain you have experienced stepping through exams in the
diverse branches of knowledge you have encountered in your studies. Test is one of the assessment tools
that your teacher used to evaluate how far have you advanced in your learnings. It is one way your
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
SETTING UP
A. Matching Type
Directions. Below are some words that you will encounter during the discussion of our entire lessons. Let
me know which among these words you are familiar with by matching column A to column B. Be honest in
giving your answers since this is merely to assess your prior knowledge. Insert your answers in the box
Column A Column B
Assessment as A. Paper and Pencil Test
Objective Measurement B. Assignment of a number to object or things
Assessment of C. Formative Assessment
Traditional Method D. Making judgment on the worth of value of something
Subjective E. Self-assessment
Measurement F. Summative Assessment
Assessment for G. Given at the end of the course
Diagnostic Test H. Test results are used for instructional decision making
Evaluation I. Determines student’s strengths and weaknesses
High Stakes testing J. Measurement done through test or examination
Achievement Test K. Based on personal opinion.
Measurement
EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE
T o k n o w m o r e a b o u t o ur
l e s s o n s f o r this unit, l et us
b e g i n our discussion. R e a d
a n d u n d e r s t a n d ve ry we l l e a c h
t o p i c t o g a i n m o r e m e a n i n gf u l
a n d fruitful learnings.
A. BASIC CONCEPTS
1. ASSESSMENT
Assessment has always been a regular activity of your student life. Have you ever thought why
are you being assessed? The overview of assessment will clarify fundamental ideas about assessment
which will give you greater understanding about what assessment is, its classification, and purpose. There
are other sub-topics of assessment that will not be mentioned in this module but will be included in your
assignments and further readings. So b eg i n your journey a n d start reading!
Assessment is a method of gathering your school performance data that aims to collect information
to specify and verify problems concerning your learning achievement. Thus, your teacher can make
decisions regarding your learning performance. It is essentially taking a sample of what you do, making
2017).
T h e r e a r e various
a p p r o a c h e s to
Assessment which
you n e e d t o know
They are:
Assessment For Learning – This is being used by the teacher to find out the extent of what you
know and what you can do and thereby see the g a p s in learning that you might have. Teacher creates
assessments that will determine if the intended learning targets are achieved by you and to
address the gaps that occur during the process of your learning formation. This is also
referred as formative
assessment ; wherein its result serves as a proof that you have achieved the desired learnings
targeted by your teacher.
To illustrate this type of assessment is when your teachers use questioning, quizzes, and other
means which are useful and essential in curriculum design and instruction. It may also include pre-test and
post-test.
Assessment Of Learning – It is usually given towards the end of a course or a unit in a semestral
term. It is being done to determine if you have achieved the instructional goals and for your teachers to
give you an equivalent mark or grade. What is the best example for this? Your mid-term or final
examinations.
gives important
AssessmentemphasAs Lise oanr nmi negt a–coItgsnmit iaoinn
that learning is not only about someone who is knowledgeable in transferring ideas to someone who is not.
foa cnuaswisa roennheos swoyfoouneef’sfict iheonut glyh tms aannadgep ryoocuers soews n) . lIet aarsnsiunmg. eIts
It means( that you, as students, should not only be passive learners but should be actively engaged in your
own learning. You must also acquire the mastery to monitor what you are learning and use what you have
discovered from that monitoring.
Read this:
a. Traditional Method – generally, it refers to the written test or the paper-and-pencil test. This
type of test usually relies on rote memorization of facts.
Constructed Re s onse
Essay-Restricted
Or non-restricted Problem
Solving
b. Authentic Method – involves the demonstration of your actual performance of what you have
learned from the class. It is mostly preferred by many in evaluating the students’ achievement.
Product Performance
Visual like
scrapbook, Role Play
portfolio Public speaking
collage Dance
Presentation
REFLECT ON THIS: Why is t here a n eed for assessment? What a r e its purposes?
Purposes of Assessment
You can gain a better understanding of assessment by studying its purposes. Let us read and learn.
We need to conduct an assessment to the learners so we, the teachers, can:
inspire and motivate you to focus on your study predict success in your future employment
provide feedbacks to improve your learning provide feedbacks for your lecturer/s
diagnose your strengths and weaknesses help improve our methods of teaching
make the course appear creditworthy to other
help you develop your skills of self-assessment
institutions and employees.
provide a profile of what you have learned help you select future courses
determine if you are capable of receiving a passing
help you acquire license to practice profession
or failing mark.
I am sure that you are already acquainted with the preceding words, but still confused about their
meanings and their relationships with assessment. Go on with your reading and find out the meaning and
the differences of the following terms:
2. TESTING
Standardized Testing – The same test is uniformly administered to all students which means the
questions, the allotted time, and the mode of scoring are all the same.
b. Aptitude Test
High Stakes Testing – a man-made test which utilized the test results for
important judgment or decision concerning the following matters:
As a student, there are several types of test that are given to you for
specifi c purposes. Read the following topics to know more.
Common Types of Test
a. Diagnostic Test – It is used to determine your individual difficulties by knowing your strengths
and weaknesses prior to instruction so proper intervention can be done by your teacher.
b. Placement Test – It is a test intended to assess your particular knowledge or capability in different
subjects so as to assign you to fitting courses or classes.
c. Profi ciency Test – It is designed to gauge your insight and capacity in a language.
d. Achievement Test – It is a test given at the end of a course to assess if you are able to achieve the
course objectives.
e. Aptitude Te s t –– It is intended to evaluate your capacity, of what you can do, and what you can achieve
in your learning to determine how well you perform in the future.
Measurement - is the assignment of a quantitative description of the pupils’/ lear ner s’ performance. The
most common example in classroom is when your teacher administers a quiz test or term examinations
and gives a score. On the other hand, when we measure objects, we use some standard instrument to find
out the length, mass, temperature, degree, behavior, and other things that we would like to find out. Such
instruments may be a ruler, scale, thermometer, pressure gauge, etc.
Types of Measurement
Objective ( a s in testing)
Objective measurements are those that reveal nearly the same results even if it is
done repeatedly. It involves impartial measurement and to determine the objectivity
of a measure, one needs to assess its reliability.
Subjective ( a s in perceptions)
Evaluation – involves judging or deciding about the quality of your school performance for your teacher to
implement a possible course of action. When your assessment information is collected, synthesized, and
thought about, your teacher is in a position to judge the quality of your performance and what classroom
course of action should be done or what action is most appropriate.
Further, Patton (1987) defined evaluation as a process which involves gathering of information and
uses the results to analyze and judge the value and worthiness of something. It critically examines a
program and make judgment to improve its effectiveness for use in planning and programming decisions.
Evaluation includes both qualitative and quantitative description of your class performance plus
value judgment concerning the desirability of the performance. Evaluation may result to acceptance,
dismissal, or amendment of what has been evaluated.
You should take note that assessment and evaluation must be continuous and frequent. Teachers
must always be prepared to reassess students, and using the measurement of periodic formative
assessment, they can adjust and improve their instruction to meet your learning needs on a daily and
weekly basis.
a. Clear Purpose – A good assessment should have a clear purpose and goal. A question like “why are
we assessing the students for” “What is it intended for” should come t o mind and establish.
b. Clarity of Learning Targets – It involves specifying clear learning objectives which involve
showing what you know and can do and how your performance will be judged.
c. Appropriateness of assessment methods – Choosing the right assessment methods which should
match the identified learning targets will provide quality assessment.
d. Adequate Sampling – Teachers obtain information regarding the success of their instruction by
observing their pupils' classroom performance. It is necessary that a teacher should consider
varied assessment strategies to determine sufficient information if the targeted learnings are
achieved by the students.
e. Objectivity – The objectivity of a test can be determined if the same tests, used by examiners, yield
the same scores. After the key has been prepared, there should be no question as to whether an
When we say trend, it means that there is a movement toward development or change. The
curriculum has undergone several changes. We have been used to the traditional kind of
education in which the teacher is the sole source of knowledge. What you have been doing in the past
years of your
school life is to listen attentively to your teacher during the discussion of your lessons. Once
you have
completed all the lessons, activities, take the exams, and pass, your teacher assumed that you have
achieved the desired knowledge and skills that you should possess. Let us take a look at this
development in education if the traditional method of instruction still fits in.
Envision yourself as a newly hired teacher to teach a third-grade class. You are in quandary as to
what a third-grade needs to learn. How would you plan your lessons and how would you assess them?
How would you give feedback to their parents about their achievements in learning? If you have a
complete guide of the set of learning and competencies they need to acquire in the whole duration of their
learning experiences, not only in grade 3 but for their entire k-12 experience, then you can adhere to the
standards the education institution prescribed. The standard will guide you to ensure the
quality of education you can provide to your pupils. So to give you more idea about standards
and some
developments in education, read our lecture below.
1. Standard Based Education - is a system of teaching and learning that focuses all elements of the
educational experience, including teaching, assessment, grading, and reporting on standards that
span all throughout a student's schooling. But what is a standard? A standard is a succinct, clearly
Another shift of educational focus is from content to learning outcomes. Traditionally, the focus of
instruction was content and subject matter, but it has evolved and changed to what we call Outcome “
written description of what a student should know and be able to do after the lessons are taught
Hansen (1989) stated that outcome-based education stresses curriculum alignment and
instructional method which would center on the goal and the result. Outcome-based education to
curriculum aligned puts emphasis on teaching the stated or written curriculum. According to Hansen, the
following are:
4. Adjustment of the learning process to allow students obtain proficiency of learning the objectives
William Spady (1994), on the other hand, also gave the following:
1. Clarity of focus
2. Designing down
3. High Expectations
4. Expanded Opportunities
OBE is an approach to education that aims to produce students that satisfy the demands of highest
standard required in the specific field of work. The standards are incorporated in the program outcomes
which are translated into instructional goals and objectives. These same components should lead to
selecting topics, what topics to include, how to teach, and assess them at the highest standards required by
the actual workplace.
1. institutional outcome;
2. program outcome;
3. course; and
4. learning/instructional/lesson outcomes.
UNIT II – TARGET SETTINGS
OVERVIEW
As the master of his craft, the teacher is considered to be knowledgeable and expert in
terms of the content and its delivery. As a requirement for successful teaching and learning, the
teacher should carefully plan all his teaching activities and students' tasks.
Referring to all the standards in content delivery and targets set will be the initial step to
ensure the plan's accomplishment. Perfect execution of teaching tasks and students'
activities should be carefully implemented. To ensure the success of its achievement and acquisition,
proper assessment procedures must also be carried out.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. analyze the difference between standards-based and content-based assessment;
2. illustrate clear learning targets;
3. give examples of constructive alignment;
4. compare the assessment of, assessment for and assessment as learning; and
5. apply correct procedures in writing clear learning targets concerning course outcomes.
SETTING UP
A. Direction: What type of learning is associated with each of the following objectives? AF = affective
or PS = psychomotor? Write the LETTER only in the space provided.
Given an oral description of a material, the students will sketch it.
The student will accurately adjust a microscope.
The student will justify the importance of at least one governmental policy.
The student will eventually abide by a set of legal and ethical standards.
The students will create an original game requiring physical movements.
The student will listen while others express their point of view.
The student will respond to the call for volunteers to plant a tree in a public park.
The student will identify a type of fabric by its feel.
The learner will compute the volume of a pyramid, cone, and cube correctly.
B. Direction: Classify each objective as to its dominant level of learning in the cognitive domain. Write
the LETTERS only on the space provided.
K = Knowledge S = Synthesis
An = Analysis AP = Application
C = Comprehension E = Evaluation
The learner will list five major cities in the National Capital Region.
Given local materials, the learner will design a basket.
The student will construct a graph showing the imports of the Philippines for the last
five years.
Given a poem, the learner will identify the figurative language used by the author.
After the discussion on the charter change, the learner will write a one – paragraph
composition on his stand on the issue.
After studying the 1896 Philippines revolution, the student shall be able to explain the
reason for its failure.
The learner will compose a motto on saving mother earth.
The learner will solve four-digit multiplication problems.
The learner will correctly calculate the measurements of a pyramid, cone, and cube.
After reading a brief story, the learner will classify its plot.
EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE
T o k n o w m o r e a b o u t o u r l e s s o n s f o r this
unit, l et us b e g i n o u r discussion. R e a d a n d
u n d e r s t a n d e a c h t o p i c ve ry we l l t o gai n
m o r e m e a n i n g f u l a n d fruitful learnings.
For higher learning institutions, the assessment standardization basis is aligned in the
policies in operation and establishments of courses. HEI Curriculum consists of standards, policies,
and procedures regarding the setup of curriculum offerings up to evaluation, leading
to the standardization of assessments.
•
Clarity of Learning Targets
Standard learning targets are targets given by education authorities to maintain the consistency of
expected performancesmanifested by the learners. According to
Bonnie Houck, Ed. D. (https://www.houcked.com/blog/learning-targets/), “a
learning target is a statement of planned learning
for students based on the standards. A learning target stipulates and unpacks the outcomes and
stipulates what students can do during and after the lesson or lesson series. Learning targets are in
student-friendly
language and are specific to the lesson for the day, and directly
linked to assessment. A learning target also contains
performance criteria or a demonstration of learning.”
•
Constructive Alignment
Constructive
because it ensures intended learning
outcomes alignment
for a lesson
effective, guaranteed to
is
Learning activities and be transparent,
assessment activities
are created in alignment with these and outcomes
vital
as well. purposeful.
Also, assessment tasks
Source: ht tp:/ /www.ucdoer.ie/index.php?title=File:Aligned- need to be aligned directly
curriculum-model.gif to demonstrate the
achievement of the
intended learning outcomes, and
supported by the learning and
teaching activities within the subject.
In figure 3, an illustration depicts the difference between aligned and unaligned intended
learning outcomes.
The diagram in figure 5 simply implies that the teacher's intention is entirely off–tangent to the
outcomes to be assessed in the future. Students will simply rely on the assessment's objective but lose a
hand on the true essence of the learning target. So, the activity resorted to "pass the test only." The
diagram on the right is entirely the opposite of the first one. You can see the intentions of all aspects are the
same. It is carefully aligned with the aims of the teacher, students' activity and exam assessment.
TYPES OF STANDARDS
Teachers of any educational setting should ensure that the learning standards are in place and
adequately identified. To make up a more comprehensive and feasible learning standard, then it should be
composed of the content and performance standards.
CONTENT STANDARDS
Standards for content selection are actions related to educational processes and practices for
instruction and assessment. The effort aims to deliver contents or topics in such a way that topics are
generally the same across all parts of the locality but can be modified into a local context without changing
the curriculum's aim. The selection of contents or lessons is very vital to the attainment of learning
outcomes. Content standards were constructed to increase students' success by recognizing the knowledge,
ideas, and skills that students should get at each grade level. Content standardization leads to assessment
standardization.
The following are the observations from the concepts and discussions regarding content
standards:
In the Philippines, the observations mentioned above are pretty much evident. Our educational
system is hooked up with the process of following the standards for selecting the content. As to the criteria
in the selection of the content, Alvior (2015) suggested the following:
a) INTEREST. Content should also arouse and realize the importance of it to the learners. The
fundamental significance should be emphasized to sustain interest.
b) SELF-SUFFICIENCY. The term simply means the topics are well adequate to provide the
accomplishments of intended learning outcomes. It can attain the domains of the learning objective,
namely the affective, cognitive, and psychomotor.
c) uSItGiliNzeIFdI.CANCE. The application of the content to the real-life situation of the learner can
be well
d) VALIDITY. The lesson assigned is corresponding to the learning outcomes to be attained.
e) UTILITY. Content should also provide the application to a real-life situation. It must provide activities
that will simulate the actual work that learners may end up in the future.
f) LEARNABILITY. The topic should also be catering to diverse types of learners. It should be presented
in a manner wherein fast, average, and the slow learner will learn the topic in their pace.
g) FEASIBILITY. Content as much as possible should be accurate or applicable to the context of the
learning situation. It should be applied to the settings wherein the learner will use it most.
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The standards are written to support and promote specific desirable learners' behaviors in a
particular task. In teaching and learning, the basis for standards is the attainment of minimum
competencies required by the course learning outcomes.
Performance standards are the teacher's definitive guide and the learner regarding what has to be
acted and carried out required by the competencies in the target learning outcomes. Teachers should see to
it that any assessment instrument's creation should agree with the targeted standards of the performance.
The course's learning outcomes show the range of objectives for students; the criteria describe the
performance that will be assessed. These must align with, and provide coverage of the learning outcomes.
The standards then discuss the characteristics of performance in terms of each of these criteria at each
rating level.
According to Hicks (2020), all excellent performance standards have many of the following ten
characteristics:
1. Clear performance standards are easy to understand.
2. Clear performance standards are related to the explicit values of the organization.
3. Clear performance standards relate directly to the mission.
4. Tools and technology must support clear performance standards.
5. Clear performance standards are measurable.
6. Precise performance standards measurements must inspire confidence.
7. Clear performance standards are attainable.
8. Clear performance standards are trainable.
9. Performance standards are consistent.
10. Clear performance standards should not be confused with one another.
In summary, the content standard adds to the teaching technique that students should know and
do. It provides the most meaningful and stable learning, topics, principles, skills, and ways of thinking.
Performance standards give the teacher a hint of how well the students have to do their job. It also offers
product or performance as proof of learning or achievement of the standard of content.
Shown in Figure 6 is the relationship between learning competencies, content, and performance
standards:
As pointed out earlier in the introduction, assessment is vital in certifying the learning
competencies achieved during the teaching and learning process. Teachers should have a strong sense of
choice and conviction in selecting the most appropriate assessment tool for accomplishing learning tasks
and determining the teaching effectiveness. The right decision-making actions will be based on sound
assessment results.
The fundamental question regarding the choice of assessment type is how, to begin with, the
selection.
Here are some of the principles in selecting appropriate assessment tool by Hicks (2018):
1. Principle of Constructive Alignment. By starting with what we want our students to learn and do,
we can create and choose assessments to showcase the appropriate knowledge and skills we are
aiming for them to learn. The basis will be the outcomes and strategies of the delivery of the lesson.
2. Varying assessments. Students learn in different modes and at a different pace, in which their
strengths and challenges for assessment differ as well. Diverse assessments can also be done by
allowing their participation in the assessment process. By letting them choose the comfort zone in
the assessment process and considering the way we assess student comprehension, we are more
likely to offer opportunities for every student to demonstrate their knowledge. Then this can be
done by establishing lessons with three or more forms of assessment, such as written tasks, class
projects, and pen and paper exams.
3. Assessment Intervals. Since students tend to go over an assessment which they have to take, the
summative assessment, there must be a series of assessment given to track the progress of their
learning. Also, consider the frequency with which students should be assessed based on the
knowledge that assessment drives learning by focusing on student attention, energy, and
motivation to learn and to develop the knowledge and skills gradually to learn.
4. Choose between direct and indirect assessments. Assessment is said to be straightforward if the
teacher measures actual student behavior. Indirect, including activities involving research, group
dynamics, and similar activities that gather opinions about a lesson or its objectives. If student
assessment is required in a course or its lessons, meaning, it affects performance and course grades,
it is a direct assessment and should be taken into consideration by the teacher.
5. Information Collection on Student performance. The process is close monitoring of the students'
performance on a particular learning task. The information derived through control on the
assessment results will give teachers sound decision making on the adjustments that have to be
carried out relating to instruction and assessment methods to be conducted.
Assessment Flow (An Overview)
As an educator, the choice of suitable instruction and assessment technique to reach out to students
learning is a significant ingredient to guaranteed students success. It is deemed necessary that relating
assessment to instruction is a cycle to address the continuous learning development and dissemination.
The illustration in
figure 7 shows the
assessment process.
Clearly state the
plan and Student
Learning
Outcomes
Remedy the
Assessment
Organize results
strategies
of the instruction
employed in
and assess the
attaining the
learning
outcomes
Process student learning
outcomes
Analyze results of
the asessment of
student learning
outcomes
Developing critical learning outcomes for students that reflect what students will do in the
cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains should be achieved by teaching. They depend on the quality
teaching of the course.
Step 2: Establish results of the instruction and assess the student learning outcomes
There are numerous ways of choosing and using assessment tools to determine the learning
outcomes of students. It should also be distinguished that we must categorize the origins of the assessment
results. It can be the product of a lesson in ability or knowledge. More focus should be placed on
how the results of the assessment information are routinely compiled and organized.
Evaluation and reporting of the assessment results are essential on time. The findings can be used
to develop the method of teaching-learning further. The technique will impact the option of teaching
methods, evaluation approaches, speed of learning and acquisition. Policymakers should also use the
assessment findings to suggest measures to enhance service quality delivery of teaching.
Dissemination is necessary when the results of the assessment are on hand. The evaluation findings
would be worthless unless used as a method to develop the teaching – the learning process further. If there
are questions about the assessment outcomes, solutions and changes with current procedures and policies
should be produced by the authorities and stakeholders concerned.
TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
The figure simply indicates the processes involved in assessment in student learning. To fully
determine the student learning as a whole, the process of assessing for and knowledge must be carried out.
Several tasks are assigned in each area to serve its purpose to teachers and learners. They are a very crucial
step to undertake to attain the intended learning outcomes.
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING. This activity entails determining teaching and learning feedback.
The assessment information can be used to plan the instruction, select student activities, and diagnose
learning strengths, difficulties, and causes. Information can be written or oral feedback from learners.
Actions were taken to improve teaching and learning. It was determined earlier to anticipate procedures to
be used in teaching.
When preparing the lesson, understanding what kind of students you are designing the lesson is
essential. You aim to examine the strengths, limitations, and experience of your student before you take the
instruction. You can build your instruction based on the data you have collected. Formative assessment is
used during the first attempt to establish teaching.
According to Bhasin (2018), assessment is defined as a proper collection, interpretation and use of
information in regards to learning. He also stated that it gives the teacher a bett er awareness of peoples'
knowledge and their understanding and what learning experiences are also about their skills and personal
characters and capabilities. He also further expounded that the assessment should be in sync and
supportive of learning. It should be valid; the assessment should be proper and manageable, it should
support the judgment of a teacher, and lastly, it should promote accountability.
1) Summative Assessment
2) Formative Assessment
3) Evaluative assessment
4) Diagnostic Assessment
5) Performance-based assessments
6) Selective response assessment
7) Authentic assessment
8) Written and Oral Assessment
The summative assessment is given at the end of the instruction to certify the degree of
attainment of the learning outcomes.
Formative assessment is given during instruction to trace out the learning difficulties and
progress of the learners. This was utilized by the instructor to remediate all aspects found to be
problematic to learning acquisition.
Diagnostic assessment simply traces out the causes of learning difficulties. It can be given during
or before the instruction.
Selective response assessment a type of assessment wherein learners have to select for the
correct response to questions given by the teacher.
Authentic assessment is an assessment that assesses authentic tasks and activities. Most of the
performances done inside and outside the classroom can be practically assessed using this form
assessment.
Written assessments are performed to determine the quality of the knowledge acquired by
learners from a particular topic.
The benefit of unpackaging learning skills is to have a bett er view of the critical learning outcomes
and to focus on learning from the students. The instructor will be informed on the academic
proficiencies to unpacked at the beginning of the learning course.
Another procedure to consider is ABCD writing objectives. This plays an important part in the
creation of SMARTER objectives. They are as follows:
1. Audience
2. Behavior
3. Condition
4. Degree
The target should not always be written in the ABCD, but it should compose all these foundations.
Audience
The audience describes the student or end-user of the teaching-learning process. Regularly, the
audience is introduced only in the lower level of an objective. For example, the Course refresher
participants, the TLE students, etc.,
Behavior
Behavior describes learner competence. It must be measurable and observable. It should agree with
the application of a real-life situation. The action must deal with the performance of knowledge or skills in
any of the domains of learning: cognitive, psychomotor and affective. For instance, “…can write an essay…’
Condition
Condition pertains to available materials and resources that may or may not be used to complete
and master the behavior. An environmental setup may also be included. For example: “…given a gas stove,
regulator and gas tank…”
Degree
This method states the standard for acceptable performance (period, correctness,
proportion,
quality, etc.) For example: “… without error”,” … 9 out of 10 times.”, …within 50 seconds”, etc.
B. APPROPRIATE LEARNING TARGETS
A selection from Creating & Using Learning Targets & Performance Scales: How Teachers Make Better
Instructional Decisions, by Carla Moore, Libby H. Garst, and Robert J. Marzano as published in the website
htt ps://www.marzanocenter.com/3-types-of-learning-targets/ states the three types of learning targets:
1. Learning Goal Targets. Learning target goals are descriptions of the awareness that students will
show an understanding of a concept. These are explicitly taken from educational authorities that
describe what students will learn and be trained to do by completing a degree or course. Specific
expectations should include the details required to establish objectives for regular or weekly learning
that cover the subject emphasis, cognitive level of thought, and explicit language used to define
learning goals.
2. Foundational Targets. Foundational targets consist of knowledge and underlying procedures that
build to the cognitive level of the academic standard. They constitute the prerequisites that students
need to master to achieve the learning goal targets ultimately. There are two types of foundational
objectives:
a) those that identify declarative knowledge and
b) those that identify procedural knowledge.
Foundational Targets for Declarative Knowledge. Those goals define the academic vocabulary
necessary for regular learning. Ask the following questions to identify the critical academic
vocabulary to be targeted: Do students need to know the word or phrase to demonstrate an
understanding of the standard? Having students learned this word or the concept in a prior degree
or class?
Foundational Targets for Procedural Knowledge. Foundational goals may include any specific
skills or procedures that students must implement to accomplish the learning objective. Those are
the processes or abilities that provide the foundation for future goals and must be achieved before
the current learning target can succeed.
3. Cognitively Complex Targets. These targets are formed to help students cover and deepen the
knowledge and skills of the standard. The expectations in these targets are more rigorous than the
learning goal targets in a measure. This learning target category requires deeper logical thinking than
the standard necessitates and expects students to think about the same content in complex ways.
Cognitively complex targets ask students to use the knowledge and skills of the rule to extend their
creative thinking and make applications beyond what is outlined in the standard.
COMPETENCIES, OBJECTIVES and OUTCOMES
These three words are very critical to the successful implementation of teaching-learning and
evaluation. The lack of a solid understanding of the terms distinctions in the teacher's aspect will be tough
to establish clear learning goals, and hence ambiguous on what to accomplish in the end.
There has to be some confusion about what determines successful learning performance and how it
is distinguished from learning objectives or abilities. Even in education research, the use of these terms
sometimes appears incoherent.
Finding meanings in the dictionary can sometimes be informative. Conferring to the American
Heritage Dictionary, the learning terms are defined as follows:
Competency: Competence. The state or quality of being competent. Suitably or well qualified, can
do.
The sets of expectations that we needed our learners, who would be able to achieve, are referred to
as learning outcomes. It is their natural and mastered ability to gain all the required training in knowledge
and skills enhancement in the future. Competencies are the collection of technical skills we needed to learn
from our educational authorities based on the chosen field. On the other hand, either the student and the
instructor must concentrate on the aims to achieve the skills. Competencies will be the foundation of goals,
and then objectives will be the tool for executing to produce desired results.
website “http://observatory.tec.mx/edu-bits2/2018/1/8/how-can-student-competencies-be-assessed-in-an-
electronics-course."
Can you also establish your own set and objectives using the format given above?
Usually, the example given can be tested by competency -dependent assessment. Competence-based
evaluation is the selection and assessment of evidence to decide if a person has achieved a degree of
competency. The first and most straightforward way will be to analyze the learners' work.
Typical working conditions make students very relaxed, and they demonstrate their job-related
skills at convenience, even without usual stress that follows assessment. This helps observers to at the
same time, as they can see, get precise and acceptable examples of behavior to be evaluated.
Characteristics of Objectives (SMARTER)
Objective setting is the structure for the practical application and achievement of competencies and
results as a fundamental concept of Education. Consideration is deemed essential in alignment and
implementation.
SMART Objectives are defined as established goals and objectives within by parameters that
combine structure and flexibility. The SMART setting of targets provides a demonstrable setup toward a
specific target with dependable objectives and an estimated timetable to attain the goals. SMART is an
acronym for the
S – Specific
•
M – Measurable
•
A – Achievable
•
R – Relevant
•
T- Time-based
Setting goals for curriculum and lesson is a vital instrument that enables the teaching-learning
process to stay on a clear long-term direction by defining concrete objectives for achieving and monitoring
progress towards specific goals. It also helps the learners' learn more and efficiently accomplish their tasks
by providing them with some very satisfying challenges that will facilitate their skills attainment.
The Three Domains of Learning
The identified three domains of educational activities or learning (Bloom et al. 1956):
A. Cognitive Domain
One can think of the groups as degrees of difficulty. That is, the first ones usually have to be learned
before the next can happen.
The information below is based on explanations of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-
known "Big Dog Little Dog."
Example of Revised Cognitive Domain by Clark (2012). The information below is based on explanations
of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-known "Big Dog Little Dog."
The Psychomotor Domain as Conceptualized by Dave (1975). The information below is based on
explanations of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-known "Big Dog Little Dog."
Example of Affective Domain by Clark (2012). The information below is based on explanations of those
theories that appear at Don Clark’s well-known “Big Dog Little Dog."
Although Bloom's Taxonomy has been very useful in expanding learning from just recalling to more
nuanced cognitive systems, such as assessing and evaluating, new models have arisen. Nevertheless, with
the revised taxonomy, it becomes more useful.
One model which may prove more useful is the taxonomy of the System of Observed Learning Outcome
(SOLO). This model defines degrees of increasing complexity in the comprehension of subjects inside a
learner (Biggs, Collis, 1982). This makes both teachers and students understand the learning process.
The model consists of five levels in the order of understanding, according to Clark (2012):
When learning continues, that becomes more complicated. SOLO is a way to define learning results in terms
of their complexity, allowing us to assess the students ' work in terms of their content and not how many
bits of that they have gotten right.
At first, we select only one or a few aspects of the function (unistructural), then many aspects because they
are unrelated (multistructural). We learn how to combine them into a whole (relational), and eventually,
we can generalize the whole to applications that have not yet been taught (extended abstract).
The diagram lists verbs characteristic of each of those stages. SOLO can be applied not only in assessment
but in designing the curriculum in terms of the level of learning outcomes intended, which helps implement
the constructive alignment.
UNIT III – DESIGNING AND DEVELOPING ASSESSMENTS
OVERVIEW
Quality assessment takes center stage on the learning process. In fact, it is a vital
component of the instructional process. The evaluation and judgment of a teacher on student
performance are based on information obtained in using assessment instruments whose quality is
of paramount importance. Every teacher should have the necessary skill to develop quality test
items. It is a teacher’s mandate to procure for the learners the optimum evaluation strategy.
Teachers who create effective tests, develop remedial instruction and allow students
several att empts to elicit success can improve their teaching method and facilitate student
learning. When instructional process incorporates effective classroom assessments so as to make
them the central feature in student learning, both students and teachers derive unlimited benefits.
This unit presents topics on how to select the right assessment objectives for written tests,
design tables of specifications, construct various types of traditional test formats, establish the
validity and reliability of tests and examine the quality of individual test item through item
analysis.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. describe the features of a properly accomplished test;
SETTING UP
Let’s find out how much you already know about the topics in this unit.
I. True or False
Directions: Encircle T if the statement is right and F if the statement is.
L e t ’s read these:
Selecting proper assessment techniques is, among others an intimidating endeavor of a beginning
teacher. The method and quality of the assessment instrument are essential since the evaluation and
judgement that you will render on your students are based on data you obtain using these instruments.
These qualities are so important in assessment methods since they are indicative of your students’ extent
of learning. If there is dearth of expected qualities, evaluation and assessment will be perceived as doubtful.
instructional goals and objectives will be ambiguous.
The success of the teaching-learning process veers toward the accountability earmarked from
assessment in a classroom atmosphere. The results are two-pronged: first, how the learners studied well to
hurdle the subject or course, and second, how the teachers conducted effective instruction. Teachers resort
to summative tests to objectively measure student performance, a method acceptable to the academe and
other concerned parties. To be able to create effective tests, you need to read the following information so
that you will be guided in developing classroom-based tests for valid measurement of how well a student
academically fared.
2. Reliability - The reliability of an assessment method refers to its consistency. It is also a term
synonymous with dependability or stability. It is the extent to which an assessment tool produces a stable
and consistent result.
Types of Reliability What it is? How do you establish it?
3. Practicality and Efficiency - Practical test is a test that is developed and administered within the
available time and with available resources. In other Moreover, a test should be easy to design, to
41
administer, to mark and to interpret as to results. Efficiency, in this context, refers to the development,
administration and grading of assessment with the least effort and resources.
4.Fairness. The fairness of a test refers to freedom from any biases. Your students must know exactly what
the learning targets are and what method of assessment will be used. They have to be informed how their
progress will be evaluated in order to make strategies and perform optimally.
Other aspects of fairness include:
1. Opportunity to learn further;
2. Pre-requisite knowledge and skills;
3. Avoidance of student stereotyping
Learning targets should comply with the standards prescribed by a program or level and should
align with the instructional or learning objectives of a subject or course. Balagtas, et al (2020). Simply put,
teachers must be cognizant of the learning targets of the lesson prior to classroom instruction. Without the
alignment between learning targets and learning activities/assessments, students will spend time on
activities, assignments and assessments that stray from intended goals. If the objective is to “defend" an
idea, but the assessment used is a multiple-choice quiz, students cannot defend the idea with proper skills.
What is taught in the classroom instruction and subsequently assessed should be aligned with the
learning targets of a lesson. When assessment is aligned with instruction, both students and teachers
benefit. There is a bett er chance for learners to learn more because instruction is focused assessed
appropriately. Teachers are also able to focus, making the best use of their time. Because assessment
involves real learning, they can integrate it into their daily classroom activities.
Knowledge and
Simple 5 4 3 4 3 3
Understanding
Deep Understanding 2 5 4 4 2 3
and Reasoning
1 3 5 2 5 3
Skills
1 1 5 2 4 4
Products
Affects 1 2 4 4 4 5
Note:
Higher
number
s
indicate
bett er
matches
(e.g. 5 =
excellen
t, 1
=poor )
Other
suppor
t
Materi
als
Availab
le:
For this
lesson,
the
followin
g
material
s are
availabl
e from
your
course
professo
r.
1. A
P
o
w
e
r
P
o
43
determined by dividing the time spent for that topic during instruction by the total amount of time
spent for all topics covered in the test.
4. Determine the number of items for the whole test. As a general rule, students are given 30-60
seconds for each item in test formats with choices. For a one- hour class, this means that the test
should not exceed 60 items. However, you need also to give time for test paper distribution and
giving instructions, the number of items should be less, maybe just 50 items.
5. Determine the number of items per topic. To determine the number of items to be included in the
test, the weights per topic are considered.
Formats of TOS
1. One-way TOS. A one-way TOS maps out the content or topic test objectives, number of hours
spent, format number and placement of items. A one-way TOS cannot ensure that all levels of cognitive
behaviors that should have been developed by the course are covered in the test.
Sample 1. One-Way Table of Specifications
Time Spent on Percent of Class Number
Topics Test Placement
Topic (in hours) Time on Topic of Items
2. Two-Way TOS. A two-way TOS reflects not only the content, time spent, and the number of items but
also the levels of cognitive behavior targeted per test content. One advantage of this format is that it allows
one to see the levels of cognitive skills and dimensions of knowledge that are emphasized by the test.
Sample 2. Two-Way Table of Specifications
Item Specification
6. Avoid the use of unnecessary words or phrases which are not relevant to the problem at hand.
Faulty: While ironing his formal polo shirt Darwin burned his hand accidentally on the hot iron. This
was due to a transfer of heat because….
Good: Which of the following ways of heat transfer explains why Darwin’s hand was burned after he
touched a hot iron?
7. Write the distracters to be plausible yet clearly wrong.
Faulty : Which of the following is the largest city in the United States?
a. Michigan
b. London
c. New York
d. Berlin
Good : Which of the following is the largest city in the United States?
a. Los Angeles
b. Chicago
c. New York
d. Miami
8, Write options that are parallel or similar in form and length to avoid giving clues about the correct
answer.
9. Place options in logical order (e.g. alphabetical, shortest to longest)
10. Place correct response randomly to avoid a discernible pattern of correct answers.
11. Use none of the above carefully and only when there one absolutely correct answer.
12. Avoid all of the above option, especially if it is intended to be the correct answer.
.
4. Avoid grammatical clues to the response.
Faulty: A group of islands surrounded by waters is
called an
3. Keep the list relatively short. The ideal number of items is 5 to 10, and a maximum of 15.
4.Arrange premises and responses with maximum clarity. It is desirable to use longer statements as
premises and numbered at the left of the page. The shorter responses are placed at the right and each
identified with letters.
5.Have more responses or answer choices than premises. This will reduce guessing and using the process of
elimination in choosing the correct answer.
6.Place all the premises and responses on a single page
Faulty:
Essay Test
Essay test is the preferred method of evaluation when teachers want to measure learners’ higher
order thinking skills particularly their ability to reason, interpret, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate.
Santos, et al (2007) and Balagtas et al 92019) present the following rules of thumb in constructing good
essay questions:
1. Clearly define the intended learning outcomes to be assessed by the essay test.
2. Refrain from using essay test for intended learning outcomes that are bett er assessed by other kind
of assessment.
3. Phrase the direction in such a way that students are guided on the key concepts to be included.
Example: Write an essay on the topic: “Plant Photosynthesis” using the following key words and
phrases: chlorophyll, sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, by-product, stomata.
4. Note that the learners are properly guided in terms of the keywords that the teacher is looking for
in this essay test.
5. Inform the students on the rubrics to be used for grading their essays. This rule allows the learners
to focus on relevant and substantive materials rather than on peripheral and unnecessary facts and
bits of information.
6. Present tasks that are fair, reasonable and realistic to students
7. Be specific in the prompts about the time allotment.
48
Item Analysis
After drafting objective test items and administering it, how do you determine if the test items are
properly constructed as to degree of difficulty? How do you set apart students who excel well on the
overall test, and those who do not? An item analysis, as a valuable procedure, can easily provide the
teachers with answers to both questions.
Here are the basic concepts of item analysis:
Item analysis is a technique which evaluates the effectiveness of items in tests. It helps to improve
the test by revising or discarding ineffective items.
An item analysis provides three kinds of important information about the quality of test
items.
Item difficulty: A measure of whether an item was too easy or too hard.
Item discrimination: A measure of whether an item discriminated between students who knew the material
well and students who did not.
2. Obtain the proportion correct for each item. This is computed for the upper 27% group and the lower
27% group. This is done by summating the correct answer per item and dividing it by the total number of
students.
Student 7 2
Student 8 0 1 1 0 0 2
Student 4 0 0 0 0 1 1
Total 0 1 2 1 1
Proportion of the low group (PL)
0.00 0.33 0.67 0.33 9.33
Item discrimination = pH - pL
The value is interpreted using the table:
Index discrimination Remark
0.43 0 a- VGVeoroydgioteomd
n0 d.3 a9bove item
Reasonably good item
0.20 - 0.29
Marginal item
0.10 - 0.19
Poor item
Below 0.10Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5
= 0.67 - 0 = 0.67 - 0.33 = 2.00 - 0.67 = 1.00 - 0.33 = 1.00 - 0.33
Discrimination 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.67
index
Discrimination Very good Good item Good item Good item Very good
item item
following:
1. PowerPoint presentation on the topic Test Item Analysis
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cHmVECRT-HE
3. https:/ /www.youtube.com/watch?v=oI_7HkgZKj8
4. https:/ /www.youtube.com/watch?v=c8r_6bT_VQo
60
OVERVIEW
Statistics plays a vital role in the complexities of life. It aids in decision making, summarizes or
describes data, helps to forecast or predict future outcomes, aids in making inferences, and helps in
comparisons or establishing relationships. In education, statistics give information about the school's
population change (statistics in enrolment and dropout rate), assist in processing specific evaluations, and
surveys were given to improve the school system and evaluate the achievements, grades, and in
preparations of the test (proficiency level).
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. determine the different ways in presenting assessment results;
2. present assessment results using textual, tabular and/or graphical;
3. identify the level of measurements; and
4. utilize the various measures in interpreting assessment results.
SETTING UP
What data was gathered by SWS (at least 5)?
More Filipinos support legalizing divorce in the country, especially those with live-in partners,
according to the latest Social Weather Stations (SWS) survey.
The poll, conducted on December 8 to 16, 2017, showed an average 53 percent of adult Filipinos
nationwide agree with the statement, "Married couples who have already separated and cannot reconcile
anymore should be allowed to divorce so that they can get legally married again." The survey was
conducted using face-to-face interviews of 1,200 adults, aged 18 years old and above, nationwide.
Thirty-two percent disagreed with the statement while 15 percent were undecided resulting in a
net agreement score of +21, classified as "moderately strong." SWS noted that support for legalization of
divorce was "very strong" among women with live-in partners (+44), men with live-in partners (+37) and
widowed or separated men (+33).
Metro Manila support for divorce was strongest at +35 ("very strong"). Support from the rest of
Luzon, the Visayas and Mindanao was "moderately strong" at +23, +14 and +15, respectively.
Catholics support for divorce was strongest at +23, followed by other Christians at +12. Members of
the Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) felt "neutral" about it at -8. SWS said although it interviewed
Muslims, the results were not relevant as divorce is legal under Shari'ah Law.
There are two divisions in statistics, which are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
61
Descriptive Statistics is a statistical procedure concerned with describing the characteristics and
properties of a group of persons, places or things that based on confirmable facts. It organizes the
description, presentation and interpretation of data gathered.
Inferential Statistics is a statistical procedure used to draw inferences from the population by obtaining
information from the sample by using techniques of descriptive statistics.
Nominal: data are categorical and the numbers are used as identifiers or a representation. The
numbers on the back of a jersey (COED Blazer 1 = Juan dela Cruz) and the social security number are some
examples of a nominal data. If you conduct a survey and you will include gender as a variable, code the
Female as 1 and Male as 2 or vice versa when you enter your data into the computer. Thus, using numbers
1 and 2 can be used to represent the categories of data.
Ordinal: it denotes an ordered series of associations or rank order. In a contest, an individuals are
competing to achieve first, second, or third place. The first, second, and third place represents ordinal data.
If Rose takes first and Willy takes second, we do not know if the competition was close; we only know that
Rose outperformed Willy. Likert-type scales also represent ordinal data. Basically, these scales do not
represent a measurable quantity. An individual may respond 8 to a question and he actually feel
less than someone who responded 5. Another person may not be in half as much pain if he responded 4
than if he responded 8. This data may only indicate that an individual responded 6 is in less pain than
a person responded 8 and in more pain than a person responded 4. Therefore, Likert-type scales
represent a ranking.
Interval: it represents a quantity and has equal units in which zero indicates an additional
point of
measurement is an interval scale. For Example 10 degree Fahrenheit or -10 degrees Fahrenheit
are an interval data. Each of these scales are a direct measures of a quantity with equality of units. Thus,
zero does not represent the absolute lowest value. Rather, it is the point on a scale with numbers both
above and below it.
Ratio: it is a scale of measurement which is similar to the interval scale that represents quantity
and has equality of units. However, ratio has an absolute zero (no numbers exist below zero). It is
commonly used in physical measures like height and weight. If one is measuring a height of a person in
centimeters, there is quantity, equal units, and that measure cannot go below zero centimeters. A negative
height is not possible.
The table below shows a summary of fundamental differences between the four scales of
measurement
62
DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is gathering information from some person or some other ways to get data. Data collection
is done to keep on record for further use, to make essential decisions about different problems, and to
disseminate information on to others.
Primary Data - the collection of data from the first-hand source. This type of data is mostly pure and
original.
Secondary Data –the collection of data from the second-hand source. Information could be from another
researcher or agency.
DATA-GATHERING TECHNIQUES
TEXTUAL PRESENTATION
Data presented in a paragraph or in sentences are said to be in textual form. This includes an
enumeration of essential characteristics, emphasizing the most significant features, and highlighting the
most striking attributes of the set of data.
Example:
According to a rapid survey conducted by the government, 77 percent of micro and small firms and
62 percent of medium-sized firms had to close due to the enhanced community quarantines.
Those that remained open suffered a 66.5 percent drop in sales.
The growth forecast for 2020 assumes that the containment measures will gradually ease in the
second half of the year, and economic activities return in some sectors of the economy. Given income losses
and heightened uncertainty, household consumption and private investment are expected to remain weak.
However, economic growth prospects and poverty figures are expected to improve in succeeding
years driven by a rebound in consumption, a stronger push in public investment, supportive fiscal and
monetary policies, and the recovery of global growth. Economic growth is projected to return to above 6
percent in 2021 and 7 percent in 2022. Increased economic activity surrounding national elections
will also boost growth in 2022.
(Philippines: Social Assistance to Poor Households, Support for Small Enterprises Key to
Broad-Based Recovery; htt p://worldbank.org; June 9, 2 0 2 0 )
63
TABULAR PRESENTATION
The tabular method makes use of rows and columns. The data are presented in a systematic and
orderly manner, which catches one's attention and may facilitate the comprehension and analysis of the
data presented.
Table 2
Frequency Distribution of Gender of the Respondents
Gender Number of Respondents
Male 77
Female 45
Total 122
2. Quantitative FDT – a frequency distribution table where the data are grouped according to some
numerical or quantitative characteristics.
Table 3 Table 4
Ungrouped Frequency Distribution for the Grouped Frequency Distribution
for the Weights of 5 0 Students in Prof Ed 6 Class Weights of 5 0 Students in Prof Ed 6
Class
WEIGHT FREQUENCY
WEIGHT (in kg) (in kg)
FREQUENCY
49 2 48 – 49 2
50 3 50 – 51 8
51 5 52 – 53 17
52 7 54 – 55 0
53 7 56 – 57 0
54 0 58 – 59 12
55 0 60 – 61 7
56 0 62 – 63 6
57 0 64 – 65 1
58 12 Total 50
59 0
60 7
61 0
62 4
63 2
64 1
Total 50
64
R = 57 – 22 = 35
√1n0
where n is the number of observations and k is the number of intervals.
Example: n = 100, then k =
n = 72, then k = √72
√
0 =
n = 50, then k =
8.49 ≈ 9
0√ = 7.07 ≈
:R⁄
8 = 10
3. Determine the class size (ἱ), also known as class width
Table 5
Frequency Distribution Table of the scores in
the First Quiz in Prof Ed 6
Class Intervals Frequency
20 – 24 2
25 – 29 6
30 – 34 8
35 – 39 11
40 – 44 10
45 – 49 9
50 – 54 3
55 - 59 1
N 50
A simple grouped frequency distribution table consists only of class interval and frequency. Table 4 and
5 are simple grouped FDT tables.
A complete grouped frequency distribution table has a class mark or midpoint (x), class boundaries
(c.b), relative frequency (rf), cumulative frequencies, (cf) and relative cumulative frequency.
Class mark – the midpoint of the class interval getting the average of the upper and lower limits
Example: class mark of class interval 20 – 24
65
Class boundaries – these are the true limits of class intervals. Each class boundary equals the number
midway between the upper limit and the lower limit of the succeeding class interval.
Example: the class boundaries of 20 – 24 is 19.5 – 24.5
Relative Frequency also called percentage frequency. It is the proportion of observations falling in a
R
f
–
fv
class and is expressed in percentage. It is obtained by d ividing the frequency of each class by N.
R
f
1эо
Example: If the frequency of class interval of 20 – 24
= 2%
%
is 1 and%
001
001N
= 50,
Cuma u. laLtei vsse tFhraenq cufe(n<ccyf)( –cft)o–taalcncumbuelarteodf ofrbesqeurveantciyonosf
twh hhe ocslaesvs ae lsues do not exceed the upper limit of the class.
b. Greater than cf (>cf) – total number of observations whose values are not less than the lower limit
of the class.
Relative Cumulative Frequency
a. Less than RCF (<RCF)
b. Greater than RCF (>RCF)
Table 6
Complete Grouped Frequency Distribution Table of the scores
in the First Quiz in Prof Ed 6
C.I. F x c.b. rf <cf >cf <rcf >rcf
20 – 24 2 22 19.5 – 24.5 4% 2 50 2 100
25 – 29 6 27 24.5 – 29.5 12% 8 48 16 98
30 – 34 8
35 – 39 11
40 – 44 10
45 – 49 9
50 – 54 3
55 - 59 1
N = 50
Table 7
The Contingency Table for the opinion of viewers on the New TV Program
Samples
Choices Total
Men Women Children
Like the Program 59 67 32 158
Indiff erent 21 32 12 65
Do not like the Program 46 12 78 136
Total 126 111 122 359
Table 7 is a 3 x 3 table since it has 3 columns and 3 rows. The samples enumerated in columns are
men, women, and children while the choices or alternatives enumerated in rows are: like the program,
indifferent and do not like the program. Column and row totals are not included in the count.
66
The numerical data provided in a frequency distribution table or contingency table can be made
exciting and easier to understand when depicted in GRAPHICAL FORM. A graph is a pictorial
representation of a given data.
4. Column and Bar Graph – like pie charts, column charts and bar
charts are applicable only to grouped data. It is used for
DISCRETE grouped data of ordinal or nominal scale.
1. Frequency Histogram – a bar graph that presents the classes on horizontal axis and the
frequencies of the classes where on the vertical axis. The vertical lines of the bars are on the class
boundaries, and the height of the bar corresponds to the class frequency.
2. Fr equency Polygon – a line graph that is constructed by plotting the frequencies at the class marks
connecting the plotted points by means of straight lines and encloses the polygon by adding
an additional class at each end, for which the ends of the line are connected to the midpoints
of the additional classes at the horizontal axis.
3. Relative Frequency Histogram – it displays graph in which horizontal axis represetns the classes
and the vertical axis represents the relative frequencies.
4. Ogives – forms a graph of the cumulative frequency (cf) distribution
a. –
Any single value that describe the "center" of the given data. It is often known as the average.
Numerical
SUMMATION descriptive
NOTATION measures which indicate or locate the center of a distribution of a set of data.
X ,X X will be used to represent the
Suppose that a variable X is a variable of interest and that measurements are taken. The notation
1 2, …., n
observaGreek
The tion. letter “Σ” indicates the "summation of…" and you can write the sum of the observations
as
1 x
The number 1 and n are called the lower and upper limits of summation, respectively.
67
1.) э 1
Example: W
a
rite out the following in full, that is, without summation
2.) 1
signs:
1 +
1 1 +
1) T ehsummation n otation is d istributive over addition.
+
+
1 a
2) If c is a cons tan t, then
+
+
∑1
3) If c is a constan
э
+
1
+
2
1 ++
3
1a1
A. E
1
a a
xpand of the give n expression using the rule of
a
summation.
a a
2 + a1
1
3
+
2
Rules on Summation
2 e(
3 )
1
l
1 1
2
3
( +e+
l 1 (3)
1. э+ 8
B. Write the following into s
2
l
ummation notation with appropriate
2
limits.
. (d
+_2+ )x(a
_2
+) +
_2)
ARITHMETIC MEAN+
a)
э
+8 э
a finite The
population
+1∑2
with N elements
most common whilesometimes
average and the samplereferred
mean, used
to astothe
estimate
theis population
mean. It
observed values divided by the total number of observations. The Greek letter
meansof the
the summation
)m
u(denotes the mean for
( _
computed
2)
, isas = , where n is the number of observations in the sample.
э
Examples:
1. The numbers
employees
1
for the of
x
employees at 5 different fastfoods are 11,11,10,15 and 13. Find the mean number of
stores.
̅̅ =
∑э э э1x, = 1+
1+1эо+1э+1= dэо = 12
̅̅
2. Scores in the first long quiz for a sample of 6 students are as follows: 88, 87, 90, 94, 75 and 82.
∑dd
1о 8
8+
8x
+9
о+
9
da
+x
э
+8
,= = = 86
э1d
x d
WEIGHTED MEAN
The weighted mean is a method of computing the mean which each observation in the data set is
assigned or multiplied by a weight. Weighted mean is the average in which each quantity to be averaged
1
has a designated weight for each quantity on the total value of the average.
68
Finding the weighted mean of a variable x by multipling each value to its corresponding weight, and
then ∑ x
where x
w
=
̅̅
1
Example: Shows how the weighted mean is used to compute a grade.
weights
= values
A student receives equivalent grades in quizzes of 74 and 81. The student's final exam score is 83 and
seatworks are 72, 88, 80, 93, and 94. Each quiz is worth 20% of the final grade, seatworks worth 5% each
of the final grade, and the final exam is 35% of the final grade. What is the student's mean score in class?
Solution:
̅ ха(о%+)81(о
The student’s final grade is 81.4.
%
+)х(э%
+)8э8
%
(+)8э∑
о
%
(+)9(
1оэ%
+)9эа
%
(+)8(э
%) = 81.4
̅
Approximating the Mean from a Frequency Distribution
о1
%
This is possible only when the class mark can be assumed to be representative of all the values in
the class. If the assumption holds, the following equation may be used to approximate the mean from a
frequency distribution.
Where
= the frequencyth of ̅̅
the i
= the class mark of the ith class
class
k = total number of classes
n = total number of observations
̅̅ ∑nn1
1э9оэ = = 38.5
The average score of 50 students in the first quiz in Elementary Statistics is 38.5.
Properties of Mean
- The total deviations of all measurements in a set from the mean is 0.
- Mean can be computed for any set of numerical data.
- There has only one mean in a set of numerical data.
- It lends itself to higher statistical treatment.
- It is the most reliable central measures since it takes into account every item in the set of data.
- It is significantly affected by extreme or deviant values.
- It is used only if the data are interval or ratio and when normally distributed.
69
MEDIAN
Median is the positional middle of an array. In an array, one-half of values precede the median and
other half follow it.
The median is denoted by mь (v+1 , and to calculate it, arrange the data in an
Let X i be the i th observation in an array, I = 1,2,…
(v+1
N array.
If N is odd, the median position is equal to
, and the value of the th observation in an array is
taken as the median, i.e.
)
If the N is even, the mean of the two middle values in the array is the median, )
Example: Compute for the median of the given data set:
a) 11,11,10,15 and 13
Solution: Arrange the data in order.
X1 X4 X5
X2
X3
;
x
⁄ x2
+
(⁄+
1)
The median is 11.
10 13 15
xэ+2
b) 88, 87, 90, 94, 75 and 82.
11
Solution: Arrange the data in order.
X1
11 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6
75 82 87 88 90 94
1 x
Since the data set is even, then use formula
x
=
2x⁄++
1
2
)(⁄
The median is 87.5
=
11
Approximating the Median from a Frequency Distribution
x888+ = 87.5
This is possible only if it can be assumed that the values of the observations falling in the median
;
cf
class are equally spaced throughout the class. (The median class contains the median.)
Median class: Starting from the top, locate the class with greater than or equal to N/2 for
first time.
ccB
the
Where
c
c = class
class size
of the median class
_21)f
( c
= lower boundary of the median
n
B +
_
= total number of observations
= less than the cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class
= frequency of the median class
cf
c a ls s
Score F r e que n c y
1
_ :)20 – 24
(
25 – 29
2
<CF
6
2
8
30 – 34 8 16
35 – 39
40 – 44
11
10
27
37
45 – 49 9 46
50 – 54 3 49
55 - 59 1 50
(
N = 50
Solution:
STEP 1: Determine the median class by dividing the total number of observations by 2.
25
⁄2) ⁄ = =
70
)
:
computed median.
Score <CF
20 – 24 ( 2 2
25 – 29 6 8
30 – 34 8 16
35 – 39 11 27
40 – 44 10 37
45 – 49 9 46
50 – 54 3 49
55 - 59 1 50
N = 50
c
STEP 2: Identify the variables
= 34.5
c =5
B
n
= 50
f
= 16
c =11
STEP 3: Substitute the values to the formula then evaluate.
1_
э
M d = 34.5 + 5 = 38.59
о
)
The median score of 50 students in the first quiz is 38.59.
Properties of Median
-
(21_
)1
It is the score or class in a distribution below which 50% of the score fall and above which
another 50% lie.
d
- It is not affected by extreme or deviant values.
- It is appropriate to use when there are extreme or deviant values.
- It is used in an ordinal data.
- It exists in both quantitative and qualitative data.
MODE
-
Mode is the most observed value in a set.
- It is commonly located where the observation values occur with the highest frequency.
- It could not always exist, and if it does, it may not be unique.
- When a data set has one mode, it is called unimodal, two modes are called bimodal, three modes
are called trimodal, and so on.
- It is not affected by extreme values.
- It can be applied to both qualitative and quantitative data.
Example: Identify the mode(s) of the following data sets.
Data Set 1
2 5 2 3 5 2 1
Solution
Mo = 2 because it has the most number of occurrence.
Data Set 2
2 5 5 2 2 5 1
3 5 4 2 5 5 2
Solution
Mo = 2,5 because both occurred 5 times.
71
Data Set 4
Red Blue Blue White Yellow Red
Green Blue Orange White Yellow Black
Mo = Blue because it has the highest number of occurrences in the data set.
Approximating the Mode from a Frequency Distribution
2
Where
_ ]
The modal class has the highest frequency
1_
c
= lcolawses rs cizlaesosf bt ohuue nmdoadryalocfltahses
c
modal class
cB
+[ 1
= frequency of the modal class
= class frequency of the preceding the modal class
= class frequency of the following the modal class
Example: Same table from Frequency
the sample above
1
STEP 1: Find the modal class by identifying the class with the highest frequency.
Score
20 – 24
25 – 29
( ) :
2
6
_
30 – 34
35 – 39
8
11 Modal
40 – 44 10 class
45 – 49 9
c 50 – 54
55 - 59
3
1
N = 50
c
STEP 2: Identify the variables
= 34.5
c
=5
B
= 11
=8
=10
B
1
Mo = 34.5 +5
38.25
)* (88 1o+
111 =
STEP 3: Substitute the values to
the formula
MEASURES OF POSITION
(Descriptive Statistics)
PERCENTILES
Observed values are divided a set of observations in an array into 100 equal parts. Thus, P 1, first
percentile, means that the preceding value belongs to the lowest 1%.
P2, second percentile, means that the preceding values belong to the
lowest 2% and so on. To compute for the ith percentile:
Where : *(1o+o)+
1
Pi = the value of the
v
= indicated fractile (the position/ observation that is looking for)
observation in the array
= number of
observations
Example:
The scores of 8 students in a quiz are as follows:
75 88 94 76 87 94
82 90
Find the 39 percentile.
th
72
Solution:
STEP 1: First arrange the data from lowest to highest.
75 76 82 87 88 94 94
90
STEP 2: Identify the values of the variables and substitute to the formula
P39 =
*918(
Therefore, the 39th percentile is 87, which is interpreted as 39% of the scores are below 87.
o + o 1
) cB = 1
о
_
c
оf _
c
v
Where
+)
v
1
1o
= the class =
+
c
v
the lower
where class
the less
= class size of the
vv
bo undary
than
of the
CF is equal
to, or exceeds for the first time,
o
.
class
B f1 _
c
class
= frequency of
= less than cumulative class frequency of the preceding
v
Example:
the class
Find the 80th percentile.
class
Score Frequency (
20 – 24 2
25 – 29 6
30 – 34 8
35 – 39 11
40 – 44
45 – 49
10
9
:
50 – 54 3
55 - 59 1
N = 50 )
STEP 1: Make a cumulative frequency, then determine the percentile class by calculating the
Solution:
. 1
o
= 40
o
1o 1
Look where it belongs in the <CF. Choice the class that is equal or has a higher value than the computed
value. Frequency
Score
20 – 24 ( )
2
: <CF
2 o8oэ( o)
o
25 – 29 6 8
30 – 34
35 – 39
8
11
16
27
o
40 – 44 10 37
45 – 49 9 46
50 – 54 3 49
55 - 59 1 50
N = 50
c
c1
c
_
f = 44.5
=5
37
=9
73
M d = 44.5 + 5 )о)9
(
81
оо(э
=
46.16
_х
)о
Eighty; percent of the scores in the quiz are below 46.16.
QUARTILES
Quartiles are values that divide the array into 4 equal parts. Thus,
Q1, first quartile, the preceding values belong to the lowest 25% of the set of data.
Q2, second quartile, the preceding values belong to the lowest 50% of the set of data.
Q3, third quartile, the preceding values belong to the lowest 75% of the set of data.
array
87 94
Example:
The scores of 8 students in a quiz are as follows:
Solution:75 88 94 76
STEP 1: First arrange the data from lowest to highest.
82 90
75
find the 1st quartile or Q1.76 82 87 88 94 94
90
*18(a+1v
STEP 2: Identify the values of the variables and substitute to the formula
Q1 = observation = 2.25th or the 3rd observation
)
+
Therefore, the 1st quartile is 82, which is interpreted as 25% of the scores are below 82.
c
cB _ c
Approximating the ith Quartile from a Frequency Distribution
a
=
f _
v
Where
c Qv
+)
class = class where the <CF is equal to, or exceeds for the first
1
a
time,
c
v
= the lower class boundary of the
= class size of the
.
class
B
= frequency of the
class class
STEP a cumulative then determine the quartile class by calculating the
Q
Solution:
class
. a
a
c
= 12.5
Q
Look where it belongs on the <CF. Choice the class that is equal or has a higher value than the computed
value. Frequency
_
1fQ
Score
)
20 – 24 ( 2
: <CF
2 1
(эо)
25 – 29 6 8
30 – 34 8
11
16
27
a
40 –– 39
35 44 10 37
45 – 49 9 46
50 – 54 3 49
55 - 59 1 50
74
N = 50
STEP 2: Identify the variables then substitute the values to the formula then evaluate.
M d = 29.5 + 5 )) 8
( 1(эао
)_8
Twenty-five percent of the scores in the quiz are below 32.31.
= 32.31
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
(Descriptive Statistics)
Measures of dispersion indicates the scatteredness of the observed values from the mean. It is used
to identify the degree of the scatteredness so steps may be done to control the current variation. It is also
used to determine the measure of the reliability of the average value.
These are also the measures of the average distance of each observation from the center of the
distribution. It also indicates the homogeneity or heterogeneity of a particular group.
The measures of absolute dispersion are stated in the units of the original observations. It cannot
be used to compare variations of two data sets when the average of these data set differs a lot in value or
when the observations differ in a unit of measurement.
Range
The range of a set of measurement is the difference between the largest and smallest values.
Range (R) = maximum value – minimum value
Example:
The IQ scores of 6 members of the Gonzalvo's family are 112,114,109,120, 119 and 116. Find the
range.
Observe the graphs above, data are distributed differently, but the range is the same.
v
For a finite population of size
deviation is
population standard
the population variance is ∑1
(v)_
2 and the
75
∑1 ̅=(
2
The population variance
2
, can be estimated by the sample variance,
()
)_ and population standard deviation
∑
can be estimated using
̅ _ 1 2 the
.
the standard
Solution:
э
(
3
э
+ 8)+
y∑
э
1
( 1
_))эх
о х y
=
s=
_∑
(
2
)
dy 3
(
э
(+
a 8+
+e
a
+e)
+ e 2
e
(
) +
6
7
2
(_
1
) 1
о 9
2
1e
.
1 1
e 1 3
0
Approximating the Variance and Standard Variation from a Frequency Distribution
Where
th
= frequency
= class mark of the i th class
1( ̅̅)2
of the i = mean of the frequency
class
1
n
∑
n = total number of observations =
distribution
∑
(2)(∑
n
1
Score
1
n1
)
Frequency
(
Class Mark
(
Scores in the First Quiz in Prof Ed 6
20 – 24 2 22 44 968
)
25 – 29 6 27 162 4,374
)2
30 – 34
35 – 39
8
11
32
37
256
407
8,192
15,059
40 – 44 10 42 420 17,640
45 – 49 9 47 423 19,881
50 – 54 3 52 156 8,112
55 - 59 1 57 57 3,249
TOTAL N = 50 1,925 77,475
n
2
2э
х
о
(
a
1
х
_
э
(
)
эоa
(9
9 э
)2
1
d
8
1
= 68.6224
n nn
y
1n
=
∑
∑
n
_
∑(
(_
1
2
2
)nn1 √6 ) 2 э
_
∑
(
8.6
1
(_1
)
) 1 2e
STANDARD SCORE о
э
a
= 8.28 of standard deviations in relation to the mean. It is computed as
The standard score is the measures
) _
Z=
The standard score can be used to compare values from the series of data mainly when the means
and the standard deviations are different.
Examples:
Dante obtained a grade of 70 in English and 93 in PE. The mean grade in English is 65, and the
standard deviation is 4, whereas, in PE, the mean grade is 80 having a standard deviation of 15, in which
subject did Dante perform better?
ZPE =
9_
Solution:
1э8
o
= 0.87 ;
Zenglish =
= 1.25
хoa
_dэ
Dante performed better in English.
A normal probability is a distribution that is continuous in which both symmetrical and mesokurtic.
The curve representing the normal probability distribution is often described as being "bell-shaped". This
is sometimes called "Gaussian Distribution" or the "Normal Curve".
For data with a normal distribution, the standard deviation has the following characteristics.
1. About 68% of the data are within one standard deviation of the mean.
2. About 95% of the data are within two standard deviations of the mean.
3. About 99.7% of the data are within three standard deviations of the mean.
Example:
The mean salary in Cabanatuan is ₱15,000, with a standard deviation of ₱200. Estimate the percent
employees that have a salary between ₱13,000 and ₱17,000.
̅̅
_ ̅̅
+
Solution:
Assuming that the distribution is in bell-shaped. So, we can use the empirical rule. Given that the mean is
₱15,000, = ₱13,000 is equivalent to one standard deviation which has 34% and
77
equivalent to one standard deviation which also has 34%. Therefore, there are 64% of employees in
Cabanatuan that takes a salary between ₱13,000 and ₱17,000.
̅̅_
any given variable into a standardized normal curve. The formula to be used is:
x = given value of the variable
s = standard deviation
̅̅
Some considerations and reminders when solving statistical problems using the areas under the
normal curve table:
1. The total area under a normal curve is 1 or 100%.
The50%. .
2. Since the normal curve is symmetrical about the mean; then half the normal curve has an area of 0.5
4. or given area in the table is the area from z = 0 to
3. The table you will use gives only the area to the right of the mean.
Example:
(a) Determine the area from z = 0 to z = 1.15
P(z
c1
.)
Solution:
Step 1: Shade the required region.
Step 2: Find the area using the table.
_1.0
(b) Find P( c c1
.)
Solution:
Step 1: Shade the required region.
Step 2: Find the area using the table.
x
mean of 30 and standard deviation
of 8. _8
c
o 8
_
303
72 ( P
=3
7_
0
.(
c c
c3
) 6
20
.
= 0.3802 or 38.02%
620.
) 3
7
_
0
.
2. area greater than 32
P( x ≥ 32)
= P (z ≥ 0.25)
78
= 0.4013 or 40.13%
91
REFERENCES
Brown, G. (1997). Assessing Student Learning in Higher Education. Routledge: London, New York.
McMillan, James H. (1997). Classroom assessment: Principles and practice for effective instruction.
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Airasian, P. (1997). Classroom Assessment 3rd ed. McGraw Hills Companies, Inc.
Navarro, R.L., Santos, R.G & Corpuz, B.B. (2017). Assessment of Learning 1. Lorimar Publishing, Inc: Quezon
City.
Hansen, J. (1989). Outcome-Based Education: A Smarter Way to Assess Student Learning. The Clearing
House, 63(4), 172-174. Retrieved July 9, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/30182065
Hena, L. (2015). Classroom Assessment 1. Great Books Trading: Quezon City.
Clark, D.R. (2004). Concepts of leadership. Retrieved
from http://nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadcon.html
Clark, D.R. (2012). Design Methodologies: instructional, thinking, agile, system, or x
problem? Retrieved from http://nwlink.com/~donclark/design/design_models.html
Harrow, A.J., (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain. New York: David McKay Co. retrieved from
http://cehdclass.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/harrowstax.htm
Seels and Glasgow (1990). Exercises in instructional design. Columbus OH: Merrill Publishing Company.
retrieved from http://cehdcla s.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/harrowstax.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_observed_learning_outcome
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
Activity 6 36
93
Activity 11 59
Activity 12 60