Assessment in

Learning 1
(Prof Ed/ Educ 6)

Dr. Theresa L. Castro

Mr. Marlon V. Rufino
Mrs. Diezabel V. Esguerra
Ms. Romellen T. Gonzalvo
Xyrus Ulysses Villanueva
Mrs. Jenny O. Tumacder

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 COURSE BRIEF OUTLINE
I. PRELIMINARIES
A. Curriculum Program : BSED/BSIE/BEED/BTLEd
B. Course Code : Prof Ed 6/ Educ 6
C. Course Title : Assessment of Learning 1
D. Credit Unit : 3 Units
E. Time Duration : 3 hrs/week (54 hrs/sem)
F. Pre-requisite : N/A

II. COURSE DESCRIPTION

III. This is a course that focuses on the principles, development and utilization of
conventional assessment tools to improve the teaching-learning process. It
emphasizes on the use of Assessment of, as and for, in measuring knowledge,
comprehension, and other thinking skills in the cognitive, psychomotor or affective
domains. It allows students to go through the standard steps in test construction and
development and the application in grading systems.

IV. COURSE OUTCOMES

CO 1 Demonstrate current, research-based knowledge and understanding of the

basic concepts and principles of assessment and how they are applied in
teaching and learning;
CO 2 Identify learning outcomes that are aligned with learning competencies;
CO 3 Demonstrate knowledge in designing, developing, selecting and using
appropriate diagnostic, formative and summative assessment strategies in line
with K to 12 standards, guidelines and requirements;
CO 4 Demonstrate knowledge of monitoring and evaluating learner progress using
learner attainment data; and
CO 5 Demonstrate understanding of the role of assessment in making instructional
decisions.

V. STUDENT OUTCOMES

Student Outcomes
After graduation, the students should have
1. Acquired knowledge on the basic concepts and principles on test,
measurement, assessment and evaluation.
2. Acquired skills in constructing pen and paper test.
3. Used assessment data in developing different assessment tools.
4. Disseminated concepts and principles on test, measurement, assessment
and evaluation to peers.
5. Established linkages and/or partnership with other programs in
developing standardized tests.

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UNIT I – PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS AND RECENT TRENDS

OVERVIEW
You have now reached tertiary or your advanced degree in your education. You have reached this
far because you have effectively passed all the prerequisites in your basic education. In your long stretches
of schooling from elementary to high school, I am certain you have experienced stepping through exams in
the diverse branches of knowledge you have encountered in your studies. Test is one of the assessment
tools that your teacher used to evaluate how far have you advanced in your learnings. It is one way your
teacher can determine your strength and weaknesses so appropriate mediations can be done to achieve
learnings. In this unit, you will discover the basic concepts in assessment which will enlighten you about
the different types of assessment such as assessment for, assessment of, and assessment as. As future
teachers, in order to effectively make a good decision about the performance of your students, it requires
good understanding about the principles of high quality assessment. This is to guarantee the effectiveness
of the tests and that the information of the student’s performance that could be obtained from them is valid
and reliable. In this unit, you will also learn the recent trends and focus in assessment. So get ready and
explore all the topics in this unit that will give you general direction on the concepts of assessment.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
a. explain the basic concepts and principles in educational assessment;
b. discuss the role of assessment in making instructional decisions to improve
teaching and learning;
c. reflect on and discuss the applications and implications of assessment to teaching
and learning;
d. differentiate measurement, test, assessment, and evaluation;
e. explain the high quality assessment components; and
f. discuss recent trends and focus in assessment.

SETTING UP

A. Matching Type
Directions. Below are some words that you will encounter during the discussion of our entire lessons. Let
me know which among these words you are familiar with by matching column A to column B. Be honest in
giving your answers since this is merely to assess your prior knowledge. Insert your answers in the box
before the words in Column A.

Column A Column B
Assessment as A. Paper and Pencil Test
Objective Measurement B. Assignment of a number to object or things
Assessment of C. Formative Assessment
Traditional Method D. Making judgment on the worth of value of something
Subjective Measurement E. Self-assessment
Assessment for F. Summative Assessment
Diagnostic Test G. Given at the end of the course
Evaluation H. Test results are used for instructional decision making
High Stakes testing I. Determines student’s strengths and weaknesses
Achievement Test J. Measurement done through test or examination
Measurement K. Based on personal opinion.

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 B. True or False
Directions. Analyze the following sentences. Write True if the statement is correct, and False if the
statement is incorrect. Place your answers before the number.

___________ 1. Learning targets must be stated in behavioral terms.

___________ 2. Assessment method must be congruent to the instructional objectives given by the
teacher.
___________ 3. Learning targets are the lessons that the teacher would like the students to learn in a
subject.
___________4. The suitability of assessment tool for the topics discussed is least considered when
preparing a test.
___________ 5. Learning targets must be a clear description of what teachers should know and able to
do.
___________6. Traditional method of assessment involves the demonstration of student’s actual
performance of what he/she learns in class.
___________7. One purpose of assessment is to determine students who perform high in class.
___________8. Outcome based education is student-centered.
___________9. Objective measurement is more stable than subjective measurement.
___________10. We use the results of assessments to judge the quality of pupils’ performance in class.
__________11. We administer placement test to assess if the students achieve the course objectives.
__________12. The right assessment methods aligned with the learning objective is a component of
high quality assessment.
__________13. Paper and pencil test is a tool of assessment used in traditional method.
__________14. In implementing outcome based education, we need to identify the educational
objectives of the course.
__________15. Assessment helps determine the students’ strength and weakness.

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EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

To know more about our

lessons for this unit, let us
begin our discussion. Read
and understand very well each
topic to gain more meaningful
and fruitful learnings.

A. BASIC CONCEPTS

1. ASSESSMENT

Assessment has always been a regular activity of your student life. Have you ever thought why
are you being assessed? The overview of assessment will clarify fundamental ideas about assessment
which will give you greater understanding about what assessment is, its classification, and purpose. There
are other sub-topics of assessment that will not be mentioned in this module but will be included in your
assignments and further readings. So begin your journey and start reading!

Assessment is a method of gathering your school performance data that aims to collect information
to specify and verify problems concerning your learning achievement. Thus, your teacher can make
decisions regarding your learning performance. It is essentially taking a sample of what you do, making
inferences, and estimating the worth of your actions. Some proof of your learning success can be
manifested in your tests, written works, journals, portfolios, and other learning tasks (Navarro, et al.,
2017).

There are various

approaches to
Assessment which
you need to know

They are:
Assessment For Learning – This is being used by the teacher to find out the extent of what you
know and what you can do and thereby see the gaps in learning that you might have. Teacher creates
assessments that will determine if the intended learning targets are achieved by you and to address the
gaps that occur during the process of your learning formation. This is also referred as formative
assessment; wherein its result serves as a proof that you have achieved the desired learnings targeted by
your teacher.
To illustrate this type of assessment is when your teachers use questioning, quizzes, and other
means which are useful and essential in curriculum design and instruction. It may also include pre-test and
post-test.
Assessment Of Learning – It is usually given towards the end of a course or a unit in a semestral
term. It is being done to determine if you have achieved the instructional goals and for your teachers to
give you an equivalent mark or grade. What is the best example for this? Your mid-term or final
examinations.
Assessment As Learning – Its main focus is on how you efficiently manage your own learning. It
gives important emphasis on metacognition (an awareness of one’s thoughts and processes). It assumes

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that learning is not only about someone who is knowledgeable in transferring ideas to someone who is not.
It means that you, as students, should not only be passive learners but should be actively engaged in your
own learning. You must also acquire the mastery to monitor what you are learning and use what you have
discovered from that monitoring.

Do You Know the Classification of Assessment Methods?

Read this:
a. Traditional Method – generally, it refers to the written test or the paper-and-pencil test. This
type of test usually relies on rote memorization of facts.

Selected Response

Multiple Alternate Matching

Choice Response Type

Constructed Response

Short Answer Completion

Essay-Restricted
Or non-restricted Problem
Solving

Figure 1 - Basic Examples of Paper-and Pencil Test

b. Authentic Method – involves the demonstration of your actual performance of what you have
learned from the class. It is mostly preferred by many in evaluating the students’ achievement.

Product Performance

Output
Performance tasks

Visual like
scrapbook, Role Play
portfolio Public speaking
collage Dance
Presentation

Figure 3. Examples of Authentic Tools

Illustration taken from FS 5, Corpus. Brenda (2015)

REFLECT ON THIS: Why is there a need for assessment? What are its purposes?
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Purposes of Assessment
You can gain a better understanding of assessment by studying its purposes. Let us read and learn.
We need to conduct an assessment to the learners so we, the teachers, can:

inspire and motivate you to focus on your study
provide feedbacks to improve your learning
diagnose your strengths and weaknesses
help you develop your skills of self-assessment
provide a profile of what you have learned
determine if you are capable of receiving a passing
or failing mark.
predict success in your future employment
provide feedbacks for your lecturer/s
help improve our methods of teaching
make the course appear creditworthy to other
institutions and employees.
help you select future courses
help you acquire license to practice profession

I am sure that you are already acquainted with the preceding words, but still confused about their
meanings and their relationships with assessment. Go on with your reading and find out the meaning and
the differences of the following terms:

2. TESTING

It is an organized method of obtaining information from your progress in terms of knowledge,

skills, behavior, and aptitude by exposing you to a particular set of questions to obtain a score. It is used to
interpret whether you have or have not achieved the learning targets and competencies set by your
teacher.

TEST is one of the many types of assessment and the

most commonly used method of making measurements
FYI
in Education.
Tests may be categorized into:
Standardized Testing – The same test is uniformly administered to all students which means the
questions, the allotted time, and the mode of scoring are all the same.
What are the Examples of Standardized Test
a. College Admission Test
b. Aptitude Test
c. International Comparison Test
d. Psychological Test
High Stakes Testing – a man-made test which utilized the test results for
important judgment or decision concerning the following matters:

a. Students getting promoted to the next grade level

b. Students receiving a high school diploma
c. Accreditation of schools
d. Financial incentives for schools based on students' test performance on high-stakes test.
e. Principal and teachers being reassigned to other school as promotion
f. Hiring employees/teachers in an organization

As a student, there are several types of test that are given to you for
specific purposes. Read the following topics to know more.

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Common Types of Test

a. Diagnostic Test – It is used to determine your individual difficulties by knowing your strengths
and weaknesses prior to instruction so proper intervention can be done by your teacher.
b. Placement Test – It is a test intended to assess your particular knowledge or capability in different
subjects so as to assign you to fitting courses or classes.
c. Proficiency Test – It is designed to gauge your insight and capacity in a language.
d. Achievement Test – It is a test given at the end of a course to assess if you are able to achieve the
course objectives.
e. Aptitude Test –– It is intended to evaluate your capacity, of what you can do, and what you can
achieve in your learning to determine how well you perform in the future.

3. WHAT ABOUT MEASUREMENT?

Measurement - is the assignment of a quantitative description of the pupils’/learners’ performance. The

most common example in classroom is when your teacher administers a quiz test or term examinations
and gives a score. On the other hand, when we measure objects, we use some standard instrument to find
out the length, mass, temperature, degree, behavior, and other things that we would like to find out. Such
instruments may be a ruler, scale, thermometer, pressure gauge, etc.

NOTE: Since we are discussing assessment of learning, our discussion is focused on

measurement and evaluation related to the school performance of the learners and instruction

Types of Measurement
Objective (as in testing)
Objective measurements are those that reveal nearly the same results even if it
is done repeatedly. It involves impartial measurement and to determine the
objectivity of a measure, one needs to assess its reliability.

Subjective (as in perceptions)

Subjective measurement - indicates measures concerning the actual

experience of an individual, his feelings or emotions, and opinions that are
commonly subject to disagreement.

Another terminology that you need to know is………

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 4. WHAT IS EVALUATION?

Evaluation – involves judging or deciding about the quality of your

school performance for your teacher to implement a possible course of action. When your assessment
information is collected, synthesized, and thought about, your teacher is in a position to judge the quality of
your performance and what classroom course of action should be done or what action is most appropriate.
Further, Patton (1987) defined evaluation as a process which involves gathering of information and
uses the results to analyze and judge the value and worthiness of something. It critically examines a
program and make judgment to improve its effectiveness for use in planning and programming decisions.

Evaluation includes both qualitative and quantitative description of your class performance plus
value judgment concerning the desirability of the performance. Evaluation may result to acceptance,
dismissal, or amendment of what has been evaluated.
Evaluation = Quantitative description of pupils (Measurement) + Value judgments

You should take note that assessment and evaluation must be continuous and frequent. Teachers
must always be prepared to reassess students, and using the measurement of periodic formative
assessment, they can adjust and improve their instruction to meet your learning needs on a daily and
weekly basis.

NOTE: ADDITIONAL INPUT FOR THIS TOPIC WILL BE UPLOADED IN GOOGLE DRIVE

In order for a teacher to arrive at sound instructional

decisions which would show positive effect or change
in your learning, it is important that he/she follows
high standard in classroom assessment. What are
these? Know and carefully understand the topics
discussed below.

Let us discuss and study the following principles:

5. PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT

a. Clear Purpose – A good assessment

should have a clear purpose and goal. A question like “why are we assessing the students for” “What
b. Clarity of Learning Targets – It involves specifying clear learning objectives which involve
showing what you know and can do and how your performance will be judged.
c. Appropriateness of assessment methods – Choosing the right assessment methods which should
match the identified learning targets will provide quality assessment.
d. Adequate Sampling – Teachers obtain information regarding the success of their instruction by
observing their pupils' classroom performance. It is necessary that a teacher should consider
varied assessment strategies to determine sufficient information if the targeted learnings are
achieved by the students.
e. Objectivity – The objectivity of a test can be determined if the same tests, used by examiners, yield
the same scores. After the key has been prepared, there should be no question as to whether an
item is right or wrong, partly right or partly wrong.

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 f. Accountability and Fairness – Accountability in assessment requires the use of the information
obtained from assessment as a basis to validate or modify the behavior of the student and educator.
A fair assessment is not biased and non-discriminatory to the performance of students.

We are moving up to the next lessons and

the last topics of this unit. This has
something to do with TREND. Read and
know the meaning of that word and get
ready with our succeeding lessons.

When we say trend, it means that there is a movement toward

development or change. The curriculum has undergone several changes. We have been used to the
traditional kind of education in which the teacher is the sole source of knowledge. What you have been
doing in the past years of your school life is to listen attentively to your teacher during the discussion of
your lessons. Once you have completed all the lessons, activities, take the exams, and pass, your teacher
assumed that you have achieved the desired knowledge and skills that you should possess. Let us take a
look at this development in education if the traditional method of instruction still fits in.

6. RECENT TRENDS AND FOCUS IN EDUCATION

Envision yourself as a newly hired

teacher to teach a third-grade class. You are in quandary as to what a third-grade needs to learn. How
would you plan your lessons and how would you assess them? How would you give feedback to their
parents about their achievements in learning? If you have a complete guide of the set of learning and
competencies they need to acquire in the whole duration of their learning experiences, not only in grade 3
but for their entire k-12 experience, then you can adhere to the standards the education institution
prescribed. The standard will guide you to ensure the quality of education you can provide to your pupils.
So to give you more idea about standards and some developments in education, read our lecture below.
1. Standard Based Education - is a system of teaching and learning that focuses all elements of the
educational experience, including teaching, assessment, grading, and reporting on standards that
span all throughout a student's schooling. But what is a standard? A standard is a succinct, clearly
written description of what a student should know and be able to do after the lessons are taught
Another shift of educational focus is from content to learning outcomes. Traditionally, the focus of
instruction was content and subject matter, but it has evolved and changed to what we call “Outcome
Based Education.” But what is Outcome Based Education? Let us proceed.

Outcome-Based Education (OBE) - is a learner-centered approach to education which emphasizes what

learners can demonstrate of “knowing and doing.” OBE reforms sets well-defined guidelines for observable
and quantifiable outcomes. Outcomes may include parameters of competencies and capabilities, such as
“Student can apply basics of nutrition related to sports” or “Student can explain the basics in playing
basketball sport.”

According to Navarro, R.L., Santos, R.G

& Corpuz, B.B., (2017), to implement
outcome-based education on the
subject or course the following are
recommended:

a. Implementing Outcome Based Description

Education
1. Identify educational objectives of
the subject or course
2. List learning outcomes for each
Educational Objectives are stated this way: At the end of the
lesson, student can understand the concept and other
terminologies in Assessment of Learning
Learning outcome is stated this way: At the end of the unit,

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 subject or course the student can explain the differences among assessment,
measurement, and evaluation
3. Drafting outcomes assessment You need to identify the data necessary in the selection of
procedure assessment tools.

Hansen (1989) stated that outcome-based education stresses curriculum alignment and
instructional method which would center on the goal and the result. Outcome-based education to
curriculum aligned puts emphasis on teaching the stated or written curriculum. According to Hansen, the
following are:
b. Principles of outcome-based education
1. Outcomes or objectives are publicly and clearly stated
2. Teaching is focused on the stated objectives
3. Frequently monitors student’s learning
4. Adjustment of the learning process to allow students obtain proficiency of learning the objectives
5. Assessment is aligned to the objectives and the authentic student learning

William Spady (1994), on the other hand, also gave the following:
Four OBE Fundamental Principle

c.1 Clarity of focus

c.2 Designing down
c.3 High Expectations
c.4 Expanded Opportunities

Outcome-Based Education in the Philippines in an aftermath of the pervading clamor of education

change worldwide which led to the creation of the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, Philippine
Qualification Framework and the CHED Order No. 46.
OBE is an approach to education that aims to produce students that satisfy the demands of highest
standard required in the specific field of work. The standards are incorporated in the program outcomes
which are translated into instructional goals and objectives. These same components should lead to
selecting topics, what topics to include, how to teach, and assess them at the highest standards required by
the actual workplace.
d. Institutional, Program, Course and Learning Outcome – An institution is expecting you to
demonstrate the following outcomes in three or more than three years after graduation:
d.1 institutional outcome;
d.2 program outcome;
d.3 course; and
d.4 learning/instructional/lesson outcomes.

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Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 1

Question Answer

Explain Assessment Of, Assessment

for, Assessment As and give examples.

Discuss the role of assessment in

making instructional decision.

Enumerate:
3 things you have learned
2 things you still want to learn
1 question you have for the topics
discussed in this unit

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Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 2
Directions: Using a concept map, illustrate the relationships of Test, Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation.
Write a short paragraph explaining your answers. Use the space below.

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RUBRIC FOR ACTIVITY 1
Criteria + points Description

The question is directly answered and the response is

meaningful and makes sense. Answers show that the
Completeness (4)
student spent time thinking and preparing the
answers.

The response shows complete understanding of the

concept and is expressed in own words.
Knowledge or ideas (10)
If possible, there is a real-life example to show
connection and understanding of the concept.

The sentences are complete with few grammatical and

Writing Skills (3)
spelling errors.

Neatness (3)
Answers are written neatly and legibly.

http://qm.riosalado.edu/resources/SyllabusDB/SocialSciences
/ Rubric_Short_Answer.pdf (with slight modification)

RUBRIC FOR ACTIVITY 2

Concept Map

Criteria + points Description

Map identifies the important concepts and

Identification of concepts (5) provides evidence of understanding of knowledge
domain on multiple levels.

All concepts are organized hierarchically with

Evidence of hierarchical organization and use
clarity and with extensive number of relevant
of example (5)
examples and links.

Succinct and accurate description of all

Descriptive connectivity of links (5)
relationships through links.

Map provides evidence of complex critical

Critical Thinking and Communication (5) thinking that allows for exceptional level of
understanding

Adapted from Jennings, D. (2012)

Short URL: https://carleton.ca/experientialeducation/?
p=424

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Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 3
Self Check:
Directions: Check your understanding of our lessons by answering the following questions. Write TRUE if
the statement is correct and FALSE if it is not.
______________1. Traditional method of assessment usually relies on rote memorization.
______________2. Assessment of uses metacognition to teach students to be actively engaged
in their own learning.
_____________ 3. One of the purposes of assessment is to identify students who excel in class
for merit award.
_____________ 4. The test is subjective if it produces more or less the same outcome if done
repeatedly.
_____________ 5. High stakes testing is used to make important decisions.
_____________ 6. When your ability in a language is being tested, you are undergoing a
placement test.
_____________ 7. A teacher is being fair in giving assessment when he/she focuses on your
cognitive domain.
_____________ 8. Clear goals should be emphasized in giving assessment.
_____________ 9. Outcome based education is subject-centered type of learning.
_____________10. Assessment methods should match learning targets.
_____________11. Identifying the vision and mission of the schools is a requirement in
implementing outcome-based education
_____________12. Few samples of assessment tools given to students is sufficient information
for the teachers in making instructional decisions.
_____________13. Learning outcome is the broad goal of the subject or a course.
_____________14. Does a test which reveal the same or nearly the same score used by
examiners is objective?
_____________15. Standard-based education uses exclusive set of standards in its curriculum.

Write the number and a brief explanation for your false answers below.

____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

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UNIT II – TARGET SETTINGS

OVERVIEW

As the master of his craft, the teacher is considered to be knowledgeable and expert in
terms of the content and its delivery. As a requirement for successful teaching and learning, the
teacher should carefully plan all his teaching activities and students' tasks.

Referring to all the standards in content delivery and targets set will be the initial step to
ensure the plan's accomplishment. Perfect execution of teaching tasks and students' activities
should be carefully implemented. To ensure the success of its achievement and acquisition, proper
assessment procedures must also be carried out.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. analyze the difference between standards-based and content-based assessment;
2. illustrate clear learning targets;
3. give examples of constructive alignment;
4. compare the assessment of, assessment for and assessment as learning; and
5. apply correct procedures in writing clear learning targets concerning course outcomes.

SETTING UP

A. Direction: What type of learning is associated with each of the following objectives? AF = affective
or PS = psychomotor? Write the LETTER only in the space provided.
Given an oral description of a material, the students will sketch it.
The student will accurately adjust a microscope.
The student will justify the importance of at least one governmental policy.
The student will eventually abide by a set of legal and ethical standards.
The students will create an original game requiring physical movements.
The student will listen while others express their point of view.
The student will respond to the call for volunteers to plant a tree in a public park.
The student will identify a type of fabric by its feel.
The learner will compute the volume of a pyramid, cone, and cube correctly.

B. Direction: Classify each objective as to its dominant level of learning in the cognitive domain. Write
the LETTERS only on the space provided.
K = Knowledge
An = Analysis
C = Comprehension
S = Synthesis
AP = Application
E = Evaluation
The learner will list five major cities in the National Capital Region.
Given local materials, the learner will design a basket.
The student will construct a graph showing the imports of the Philippines for the last
five years.
Given a poem, the learner will identify the figurative language used by the author.
After the discussion on the charter change, the learner will write a one – paragraph
composition on his stand on the issue.
After studying the 1896 Philippines revolution, the student shall be able to explain the
reason for its failure.
The learner will compose a motto on saving mother earth.
The learner will solve four-digit multiplication problems.
The learner will correctly calculate the measurements of a pyramid, cone, and cube.

16
 After reading a brief story, the learner will classify its plot.
EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

To know more about our lessons for this

unit, let us begin our discussion. Read and
understand each topic very well to gain
more meaningful and fruitful learnings.

A. STANDARDS - BASED ASSESSMENT

Any assessment process in the field of Education must be

based on a set of standards. Assessment without standards will
yield uncategorized certification of accomplishments or
competencies to be acquired by the learners. It is vital in every
teaching and learning aspect to identify a set of standards to
anticipate and prepare the flow of proceedings in teaching-
learning situations.

Standards-based assessment must be rooted in the learning

outcomes that have to be given to learners. Learning outcomes are
commonly derived from the policies made by educational learners
cascaded down to the learning institutions. The thrust of today's
learning is all about
(Source: creativecommon.com) Outcomes-Based
Education (OBE).

One of which is the Most Essential Learning

Competencies or MELC from the Department of Education
(DepEd). According to DepEd, “MELC is defined as what the
students need, considered indispensable, in the teaching-
learning process to build skills, to equip learners for
subsequent grade levels and, subsequently, lifelong learning.
Moreover, they added, "The MELCs will enable the
Department to focus instruction on the most essential and
indispensable competencies that our learners must acquire, as
(Source: creativecommon.com)
we anticipate challenges in learning delivery."

For higher learning institutions, the assessment

standardization basis is aligned in the policies in operation and establishments of courses. HEI
Curriculum consists of standards, policies, and procedures regarding the setup of curriculum
offerings up to evaluation, leading to the standardization of assessments.

Standards-based assessment requires technicalities in its development. The teacher or the

facilitators of learning a particular subject, facilitating one specific subject matter, must be
equipped with basic and advanced knowledge regarding the clustering of competencies. The
grouping of skills also requires setting up of clear learning targets. Both teachers and learners
must appropriately identify clear learning targets. Clearer learning targets will supplement the
setting up of the standards-based assessment.

 Clarity of Learning Targets

Standard learning targets are targets given by

education authorities to maintain the consistency of expected
performances manifested by the learners. According to
Bonnie Houck, Ed. D.

17
(https://www.houcked.com/blog/learning-targets/), “a learning target is a statement of planned learning
for students based on the standards. A learning target stipulates and unpacks the outcomes and stipulates
what students can do during and after the lesson or lesson series. Learning targets are in student-friendly
language and are specific to the lesson for the day, and directly linked to assessment. A learning target also
contains performance criteria or a demonstration of learning.”

Clear learning targets based on standard learning targets enable the teacher to see the
students' future accomplishments. Figure at the right states the fundamental difference between
standard target and learning target, as explained.

What is expected of them gives the teacher possible options and interventions appropriate
in the attainment of these targets. Maximum
Source:
achievement can also be possible if the teacher is https://www.slideshare.net/MarciShepard/purpose-
knowledgeable of these targets. It is on how he or she teaching-with-effective-learning-targets-and-
classifies the targets as higher-ordered or lower – success-criteria
ordered targets.
Figure 1: Standard vs. Learning Target

 Constructive Alignment

In assessment in learning, whether task output is process-based or product-oriented–

based, constructive alignment is the most important thing to consider by the teacher in executing
the whole teaching and learning process. The parallelism of activities is a requirement to
preserve the alignment of learning outcomes. Teachers should consider all of the effecting factors
to the attainment of student learning outcomes like the selection of strategies, activities and
assessment techniques. In short, start with the outcomes you intend students to learn, a variety of
activities and materials, and align teaching and assessment to those outcomes.

"Constructive alignment is an example of outcomes-based education (OBE)"

(https://www.johnbiggs.com.au/academic/constructive-alignment/).

• Principles in Constructive Alignment

Teachers make alignment

between the planned learning
activities and the learning
outcomes and to measure the
attainment of those outcomes.
These situations lead to the
concepts of constructive alignment.
Constructive alignment is simply
referred also to as an aligned
curriculum. The model shown
below is attributed to Biggs (2003,
1999), which explains constructive
alignment:

Constructive alignment is
vital because it ensures intended
learning outcomes for a lesson
guaranteed to be effective,
transparent, and purposeful.
Learning activities and assessment activities are created in alignment with these
outcomes as well. Also, assessment
Source: http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php?title=File:Aligned- tasks need to be aligned directly to
curriculum-model.gif demonstrate the achievement of the

18
 intended learning outcomes, and supported by the learning and teaching activities
within the subject.

In figure 3, an illustration depicts the difference between aligned and unaligned intended
learning outcomes.

Source:
http://www.itu.dk/~brabr
and/teaconc.pdf
FIGURE 5: An aligned vs.
aligned course

The diagram in figure 5 simply implies that the teacher's intention is entirely off–tangent to the
outcomes to be assessed in the future. Students will simply rely on the assessment's objective but lose a
hand on the true essence of the learning target. So, the activity resorted to "pass the test only." The
diagram on the right is entirely the opposite of the first one. You can see the intentions of all aspects are the
same. It is carefully aligned with the aims of the teacher, students' activity and exam assessment.

TYPES OF STANDARDS

Teachers of any educational setting should ensure that the learning standards are in place and
adequately identified. To make up a more comprehensive and feasible learning standard, then it should be
composed of the content and performance standards.

CONTENT STANDARDS

Standards for content selection are actions related to educational processes and practices for
instruction and assessment. The effort aims to deliver contents or topics in such a way that topics are
generally the same across all parts of the locality but can be modified into a local context without changing
the curriculum's aim. The selection of contents or lessons is very vital to the attainment of learning
outcomes. Content standards were constructed to increase students' success by recognizing the knowledge,
ideas, and skills that students should get at each grade level. Content standardization leads to assessment
standardization.

The following are the observations from the concepts and discussions regarding content standards:

1. Content standardization is based on the existing policies issued by educational authorities.

2. The Philosophy of the school, vision and mission is also the basis of the selection of the content.
3. Content standardization was also aligned with the approved curriculum of education authorities.
4. Standardization also involves the participation of school stakeholders.

In the Philippines, the observations mentioned above are pretty much evident. Our educational
system is hooked up with the process of following the standards for selecting the content. As to the criteria
in the selection of the content, Alvior (2015) suggested the following:

19
a) INTEREST. Content should also arouse and realize the importance of it to the learners. The
fundamental significance should be emphasized to sustain interest.

b) SELF-SUFFICIENCY. The term simply means the topics are well adequate to provide the
accomplishments of intended learning outcomes. It can attain the domains of the learning objective,
namely the affective, cognitive, and psychomotor.

c) SIGNIFICANCE. The application of the content to the real-life situation of the learner can be well
utilized.

d) VALIDITY. The lesson assigned is corresponding to the learning outcomes to be attained.

e) UTILITY. Content should also provide the application to a real-life situation. It must provide activities
that will simulate the actual work that learners may end up in the future.
f) LEARNABILITY. The topic should also be catering to diverse types of learners. It should be presented in
a manner wherein fast, average, and the slow learner will learn the topic in their pace.
g) FEASIBILITY. Content as much as possible should be accurate or applicable to the context of the
learning situation. It should be applied to the settings wherein the learner will use it most.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

The standards are written to support and promote specific desirable learners' behaviors in a
particular task. In teaching and learning, the basis for standards is the attainment of minimum
competencies required by the course learning outcomes.

Performance standards are the teacher's definitive guide and the learner regarding what has to be
acted and carried out required by the competencies in the target learning outcomes. Teachers should see to
it that any assessment instrument's creation should agree with the targeted standards of the performance.

The course's learning outcomes show the range of objectives for students; the criteria describe the
performance that will be assessed. These must align with, and provide coverage of the learning outcomes.
The standards then discuss the characteristics of performance in terms of each of these criteria at each
rating level.

Characteristics of Good Performance Standards

According to Hicks (2020), all excellent performance standards have many of the following ten
characteristics:
1. Clear performance standards are easy to understand. 
2. Clear performance standards are related to the explicit values of the organization.
3. Clear performance standards relate directly to the mission.  
4. Tools and technology must support clear performance standards.
5. Clear performance standards are measurable.
6. Precise performance standards measurements must inspire confidence.
7. Clear performance standards are attainable. 
8. Clear performance standards are trainable. 
9. Performance standards are consistent.
10. Clear performance standards should not be confused with one another.
In summary, the content standard adds to the teaching technique that students should know and
do. It provides the most meaningful and stable learning, topics, principles, skills, and ways of thinking.
Performance standards give the teacher a hint of how well the students have to do their job. It also offers
product or performance as proof of learning or achievement of the standard of content.
Shown in Figure 6 is the relationship between learning competencies, content, and performance
standards:

LEARNING COMPETENCIES

20
CONTENT
 STANDARDS

FIGURE 6: Relationship of Learning Competencies, Performance Standards and Content Standards

Assessment Type Selection

As pointed out earlier in the introduction, assessment is vital in certifying the learning
competencies achieved during the teaching and learning process. Teachers should have a strong sense of
choice and conviction in selecting the most appropriate assessment tool for accomplishing learning tasks
and determining the teaching effectiveness. The right decision-making actions will be based on sound
assessment results.
The fundamental question regarding the choice of assessment type is how, to begin with, the selection.
Here are some of the principles in selecting appropriate assessment tool by Hicks (2018):
1. Principle of Constructive Alignment. By starting with what we want our students to learn and do,
we can create and choose assessments to showcase the appropriate knowledge and skills we are
aiming for them to learn. The basis will be the outcomes and strategies of the delivery of the lesson. 
2. Varying assessments. Students learn in different modes and at a different pace, in which their
strengths and challenges for assessment differ as well. Diverse assessments can also be done by
allowing their participation in the assessment process. By letting them choose the comfort zone in
the assessment process and considering the way we assess student comprehension, we are more
likely to offer opportunities for every student to demonstrate their knowledge. Then this can be
done by establishing lessons with three or more forms of assessment, such as written tasks, class
projects, and pen and paper exams. 
3. Assessment Intervals. Since students tend to go over an assessment which they have to take, the
summative assessment, there must be a series of assessment given to track the progress of their
learning. Also, consider the frequency with which students should be assessed based on the
knowledge that assessment drives learning by focusing on student attention, energy, and
motivation to learn and to develop the knowledge and skills gradually to learn.
4. Choose between direct and indirect assessments. Assessment is said to be straightforward if the
teacher measures actual student behavior. Indirect, including activities involving research, group
dynamics, and similar activities that gather opinions about a lesson or its objectives. If student
assessment is required in a course or its lessons, meaning, it affects performance and course grades,
it is a direct assessment and should be taken into consideration by the teacher.
5. Information Collection on Student performance. The process is close monitoring of the students'
performance on a particular learning task. The information derived through control on the
assessment results will give teachers sound decision making on the adjustments that have to be
carried out relating to instruction and assessment methods to be conducted.

21
Assessment Flow (An Overview)
As an educator, the choice of suitable instruction and assessment technique to reach out to students
learning is a significant ingredient to guaranteed students success. It is deemed necessary that relating
assessment to instruction is a cycle to address the continuous learning development and dissemination.
The illustration in figure 7 shows the assessment process.

Clearly state the

plan and Student
Learning
Outcomes

Remedy the
Organize results
strategies
employed in Assessment of the instruction
and assess the
attaining the FIGURE 7: The Assessment Process
learning
outcomes
Process student learning
outcomes

Analyze results of
the asessment of
student learning
outcomes

Step 1: Write the plan and

Student Learning
Outcomes
Developing critical learning outcomes for students that reflect what students will do in the
cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains should be achieved by teaching. They depend on the quality
teaching of the course.
Step 2: Establish results of the instruction and assess the student learning outcomes
There are numerous ways of choosing and using assessment tools to determine the learning
outcomes of students. It should also be distinguished that we must categorize the origins of the assessment
results. It can be the product of a lesson in ability or knowledge. More focus should be placed on how the
results of the assessment information are routinely compiled and organized.
Step 3: Analyze products of the assessment of student learning outcomes
Evaluation and reporting of the assessment results are essential on time. The findings can be used
to develop the method of teaching-learning further. The technique will impact the option of teaching
methods, evaluation approaches, speed of learning and acquisition. Policymakers should also use the
assessment findings to suggest measures to enhance service quality delivery of teaching.
Step 4: Remedy the strategies employed in reaching the learning outcomes

22
 Dissemination is necessary when the results of the assessment are on hand. The evaluation findings
would be worthless unless used as a method to develop the teaching – the learning process further. If there
are questions about the assessment outcomes, solutions and changes with current procedures and policies
should be produced by the authorities and stakeholders concerned.

TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT

The assessment in Education is considered to be broad. Types of Assessment can be enumerated
according to use or functions in the settings it will serve. The chart describes the framework of assessment
in learning. The picture simply represents the assessment in the classroom activity as a whole.

ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
FOR ASSESSMENT
LEARNING AS LEARNING

ASSESSMENT
IN LEARNING

FIGURE 8: Assessment of Student Learning Framework

The figure simply indicates
the processes involved in assessment in
student learning. To fully determine the student learning as a whole, the process of assessing for and
knowledge must be carried out. Several tasks are assigned in each area to serve its purpose to teachers and
learners. They are a very crucial step to undertake to attain the intended learning outcomes.
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING. This activity entails determining teaching and learning feedback.
The assessment information can be used to plan the instruction, select student activities, and diagnose
learning strengths, difficulties, and causes. Information can be written or oral feedback from learners.
Actions were taken to improve teaching and learning. It was determined earlier to anticipate procedures to
be used in teaching.
When preparing the lesson, understanding what kind of students you are designing the lesson is
essential. You aim to examine the strengths, limitations, and experience of your student before you take the
instruction. You can build your instruction based on the data you have collected. Formative assessment is
used during the first attempt to establish teaching.
ASSESSMENT AS LEARNING. This activity entails self-assessment by learners. Assessment as
learning is when teachers will be observing students by answering questions and reflections on their tasks
and learning progress. Teachers provide students with feedback based on student self-monitoring. They
will judge their work, or they will let their peer assess their work. Collaborative assessment is also present
among peers. Students are assessing their work based on predetermined standards.
ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING. This will provide information about learning achievement. It will
certify to what extent does the demonstration of accomplishment reach. Students’ performance was graded
and certified, passing or failing. This is where a student's ability to perform tasks was classified according
to the degree of performance.
According to Bhasin (2018), assessment is defined as a proper collection, interpretation and use of
information in regards to learning. He also stated that it gives the teacher a better awareness of peoples'
knowledge and their understanding and what learning experiences are also about their skills and personal

23
characters and capabilities. He also further expounded that the assessment should be in sync and
supportive of learning. It should be valid; the assessment should be proper and manageable, it should
support the judgment of a teacher, and lastly, it should promote accountability.
Eight (8) Assessment types according to function, according to Bhasin (2018).
1) Summative Assessment
2) Formative Assessment
3) Evaluative assessment
4) Diagnostic Assessment
5) Performance-based assessments
6) Selective response assessment
7) Authentic assessment
8) Written and Oral Assessment
The summative assessment is given at the end of the instruction to certify the degree of
attainment of the learning outcomes.
Formative assessment is given during instruction to trace out the learning difficulties and
progress of the learners. This was utilized by the instructor to remediate all aspects found to be
problematic to learning acquisition.
Diagnostic assessment simply traces out the causes of learning difficulties. It can be given during
or before the instruction.
Selective response assessment a type of assessment wherein learners have to select for the
correct response to questions given by the teacher.
Authentic assessment is an assessment that assesses authentic tasks and activities. Most of the
performances done inside and outside the classroom can be practically assessed using this form
assessment.
Written assessments are performed to determine the quality of the knowledge acquired by
learners from a particular topic.

UNPACKING LEARNING COMPETENCIES

Unpacking is the approach used to analyze student learning outcomes into
components/competencies to identify the essential life-long transferable learning knowledge and skills.
The forms of learning activities, experiences, activities, and assessments fitted these outcomes.
The benefit of unpackaging learning skills is to have a better view of the critical learning outcomes
and to focus on learning from the students. The instructor will be informed on the academic proficiencies to
unpacked at the beginning of the learning course.

4 Parts of an ABCD Objective

Another procedure to consider is ABCD writing objectives. This plays an important part in the
creation of SMARTER objectives. They are as follows:

1. Audience
2. Behavior
3. Condition
4. Degree

The target should not always be written in the ABCD, but it should compose all these foundations.

Audience
The audience describes the student or end-user of the teaching-learning process. Regularly, the
audience is introduced only in the lower level of an objective. For example, the Course refresher
participants, the TLE students, etc.,

Behavior

24
 Behavior describes learner competence. It must be measurable and observable. It should agree with
the application of a real-life situation. The action must deal with the performance of knowledge or skills in
any of the domains of learning: cognitive, psychomotor and affective. For instance, “…can write an essay…’

Condition
Condition pertains to available materials and resources that may or may not be used to complete
and master the behavior. An environmental setup may also be included. For example: “…given a gas stove,
regulator and gas tank…”

Degree
This method states the standard for acceptable performance (period, correctness, proportion,
quality, etc.) For example: “… without error”,” … 9 out of 10 times.”, …within 50 seconds”, etc.

Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 4

In answering the questions in activity 1, consider the rubrics attached herewith:

Criteria 4 – (very good) 3 – (good) 2 – (needs 1 – (poor) Score
improvement)
The relevance The answer given is relevant The answer given The answer is No attempt to
of the answer to the information provides relevant somewhat relevant answer the
presented and provides information. and holds less question.
additional information. focus.
Elaboration/ The elaboration of the The elaboration of the The elaboration of No elaboration
Discussion answer is based on the answer is based on the the answer is attempt was
information presented and information presented. misleading to the given.
use other support from information
other theories and discussed.
principles.
Consistency Answers given are Answers given are Answers given are No consistency
consistent with facts and consistent with the less consistent. displayed
principles presented with facts and principles among the
examples. presented. answers.
TOTAL

1. State 3 reasons why constructive alignment is an essential matter in addressing the consistency of
assessment in learning?
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2. In your opinion, which is to be considered first in setting learning standards, performance, or

content standards? Justify your answer.
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3. Give two classroom situations in each of the scenarios:

• Assessment of learning
• Assessment for learning
• Assessment as learning
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26
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 5
Direction: Select the best answer among the options. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. What is a diagnostic assessment?

A. Assessment "as" Learning B. Assessment "for" Learning C. Assessment "of" Learning
2. Into which category is the Development of self-assessment and peer-assessment skills fall?
A. Assessment "for" Learning B. Assessment "as" Learning C. Assessment "of" Learning
3. Tests and examinations, portfolios, exhibitions, performances, presentations, and simulations are
examples of "assessment __ learning."
A. for B. as C. of
4. Assessment ___ Learning includes both teacher and learner in the process of repeated reflection and
recall about progress.
A. for B. as C. of
5. In assessment ___ learning, teachers regulate their plans and involve in remedial teaching.
A. for B. as C. of
6. Assessment ___ learning direct students in setting outcomes and checking their improvement.
A. for B. as C. of
7. Assessment ___ learning is used to make choices about students’ presentation about regional standards
A. for B. as C. of
8. Overall curriculum opportunities are assessed in assessment __ learning
A. for B. as C. of
9. Assessment ___ learning delivers the chance to reply action to assessment results for students to improve
performance
A. for B. as C. of
10. Quizzes, discussions, learning logs, and explanations are examples of assessment ___ learning
A. Assessment "for" Learning and Assessment "as" Learning
B. Assessment "as" Learning and Assessment "for Learning"
C. Assessment "of" Learning and Assessment "for" Learning
11. Assessment ___ learning utilizes a task or an activity to gauge student progress through a unit of
discussion.
A. for B. as C. of
12. Assessment ___ learning makes use of an activity to permit students the chance to use assessments to
improve their knowledge.
A. for B. as C. of

27
 13. Teachers use assessment __ learning as an analytical tool to discover what they can about what their
pupils know and can perform and what misperceptions, notions, or differences they might have.
A. for B. as C. of
14. Assessment __ learning aids students learn to be self-assessors who can sense knowledge, relate it to
previous experience, and use it for original learning.
A. for B. as C. of

B. APPROPRIATE LEARNING TARGETS

Training targets should make it a lot easier for the

teacher to become more disciplined and successful in
instruction concepts and implementation. This
method will encourage teachers to reflect on
improving learning across lessons and units and
students. At first, the technique can seem rigid, but the
experience will soon yield smoothness as with any
sort of procedural expertise.

In some of the difficulties, the instructor or

learning facilitator may encounter creating suitable
learning goals. Learning goals are significant in a way
that they can direct the teaching-learning process in
the curriculum implementation, activity success, and
outcome assessment. While there are plenty of rich
Source:
target sources, providing a mechanism is a very https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/assessment/basics/ali
difficult one. The problem is how to relate it to the gnment.html
learners in a learning condition background. FIGURE 9: The relationship of activities, objectives,
and Assessments
Considering the challenges raised by selecting
suitable learning goals, teachers should always resort to the list of skills provided by institutions for more
natural judgment in selecting appropriate learning goals.

Three Types of Learning Targets

A selection from Creating & Using Learning Targets & Performance Scales: How Teachers Make
Better Instructional Decisions, by Carla Moore, Libby H. Garst, and Robert J. Marzano as published in the
website https://www.marzanocenter.com/3-types-of-learning-targets/ states the three types of learning
targets:

1. Learning Goal Targets. Learning target goals are descriptions of the awareness that students will
show an understanding of a concept. These are explicitly taken from educational authorities that
describe what students will learn and be trained to do by completing a degree or course. Specific
expectations should include the details required to establish objectives for regular or weekly learning
that cover the subject emphasis, cognitive level of thought, and explicit language used to define
learning goals.

2. Foundational Targets. Foundational targets consist of knowledge and underlying procedures that
build to the cognitive level of the academic standard. They constitute the prerequisites that students
need to master to achieve the learning goal targets ultimately. There are two types of foundational
objectives:
a) those that identify declarative knowledge and
b) those that identify procedural knowledge.

28
 Foundational Targets for Declarative Knowledge. Those goals define the academic vocabulary
necessary for regular learning. Ask the following questions to identify the critical academic
vocabulary to be targeted: Do students need to know the word or phrase to demonstrate an
understanding of the standard? Having students learned this word or the concept in a prior degree
or class?

Foundational Targets for Procedural Knowledge. Foundational goals may include any specific
skills or procedures that students must implement to accomplish the learning objective. Those are
the processes or abilities that provide the foundation for future goals and must be achieved before
the current learning target can succeed.

3. Cognitively Complex Targets. These targets are formed to help students cover and deepen the
knowledge and skills of the standard. The expectations in these targets are more rigorous than the
learning goal targets in a measure. This learning target category requires deeper logical thinking than
the standard necessitates and expects students to think about the same content in complex ways.
Cognitively complex targets ask students to use the knowledge and skills of the rule to extend their
creative thinking and make applications beyond what is outlined in the standard.

COMPETENCIES, OBJECTIVES and OUTCOMES

These three words are very critical to the successful implementation of teaching-learning and
evaluation. The lack of a solid understanding of the terms distinctions in the teacher's aspect will be tough
to establish clear learning goals, and hence ambiguous on what to accomplish in the end.

There has to be some confusion about what determines successful learning performance and how it
is distinguished from learning objectives or abilities. Even in education research, the use of these terms
sometimes appears incoherent.

Finding meanings in the dictionary can sometimes be informative. Conferring to the American

Heritage Dictionary, the learning terms are defined as follows:

Competency: Competence. The state or quality of being competent. Suitably or well qualified, can
do.

Objective: Worked toward or striven for, a goal.

Outcome: A natural result, consequence.

The sets of expectations that we needed our learners, who would be able to achieve, are referred to
as learning outcomes. It is their natural and mastered ability to gain all the required training in knowledge
and skills enhancement in the future. Competencies are the collection of technical skills we needed to learn
from our educational authorities based on the chosen field. On the other hand, either the student and the
instructor must concentrate on the aims to achieve the skills. Competencies will be the foundation of goals,
and then objectives will be the tool for executing to produce desired results.

Below is an illustration of an application of the competencies, objectives, and outcomes derived from the
website “http://observatory.tec.mx/edu-bits2/2018/1/8/how-can-student-competencies-be-assessed-in-an-
electronics-course."

29
 Can you also establish your own set and objectives using the format given above?

Usually, the example given can be tested by competency-dependent assessment. Competence-based

evaluation is the selection and assessment of evidence to decide if a person has achieved a degree of
competency. The first and most straightforward way will be to analyze the learners' work.

Typical working conditions make students very relaxed, and they demonstrate their job-related
skills at convenience, even without usual stress that follows assessment. This helps observers to at the
same time, as they can see, get precise and acceptable examples of behavior to be evaluated.

Characteristics of Objectives (SMARTER)

Objective setting is the structure for the practical application and achievement of competencies and
results as a fundamental concept of Education. Consideration is deemed essential in alignment and
implementation.

SMART Objectives are defined as established goals and objectives within by parameters that
combine structure and flexibility. The SMART setting of targets provides a demonstrable setup toward a
specific target with dependable objectives and an estimated timetable to attain the goals. SMART is an
acronym for the

 S – Specific
 M – Measurable
 A – Achievable
 R – Relevant
 T- Time-based

S.M.A.R.T.E.R. Objective Setting

Setting goals for curriculum and lesson is a vital instrument that enables the teaching-learning
process to stay on a clear long-term direction by defining concrete objectives for achieving and monitoring
progress towards specific goals. It also helps the learners' learn more and efficiently accomplish their tasks
by providing them with some very satisfying challenges that will facilitate their skills attainment.
The Three Domains of Learning

The identified three domains of educational activities or learning (Bloom et al. 1956):

Cognitive : intellectual skills (knowledge)

Affective : development in feelings or expressive areas (attitude or self)
Psychomotor : manual or physical skills (competencies)

A. Cognitive Domain

A classification system of learning

habits can be understood as "the aims of the
learning process." The learner should have
gained novel abilities, expertise, and attitudes
during the teaching and learning period. The
cognitive domain includes the development of
consciousness and intellectual capacity
(Bloom, 1956). This involves remembering or
recognizing necessary information,

30
 organizational patterns, and principles that help in the event of mental skills. There are six main groups of
processes cognitive, beginning from the easiest to the most complex.

One can think of the groups as degrees of difficulty. That is, the first ones usually have to be learned
before the next can happen.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Lorin Anderson, a student of Bloom and

Krathwohl, reviewed the cognitive domain and made
some deviations. Renaming the six categories from
noun to verb forms rearranging them as shown in the
chart below

The chart shown at the right compares the

original taxonomy with the revised one:

This new taxonomy shows a more active form

of thinking and is perhaps more accurate.

Example of Revised Cognitive Domain by Clark

(2012)

The information below is based on explanations of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-
known "Big Dog Little Dog."

Category Examples, keywords (verbs), and Strategies for

learning (activities)
Remembering: Recall or retrieve previously Examples: Recite a poem—quote prices from memory to a
learned information. lecture. Enumerate the safety rules.
Keywords: describes, defines, identifies, knows, labels,
lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes,
reproduces, selects, states
Strategies: bookmarking, flashcards, rote learning based
on repetition, reading
Understanding: Comprehending the Examples: Rewrite the principles of test writing. Elaborate
meaning, interpolation, translation, and in one's own words the steps for performing a
interpretation of teachings and problems. complicated task. Translate an equation into a computer
State a problem in one's words. spreadsheet.
Keywords: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes,
estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an
example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts,
rewrites, summarizes, translates
Strategies: Develop an analogy, participating in
cooperative learning, taking notes, storytelling, Internet
search
Applying: utilize a concept in a situation or Examples: Use a pattern to calculate an employee's
unprompted utilization of an abstraction. vacation time. Apply the laws of statistics to evaluate the
Applies what was learned in the school into reliability of a written test.
original situations in real-life. Keywords: applies, changes, computes, constructs,
demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates,
predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses
Strategies: cooperative learning, generate a procedure,
blog, practice
Analyzing: Splits material or concepts into Examples: Troubleshoot a part of equipment by using
parts so that its structure may be logical deduction. Identify logical misconceptions in
understood. Differentiates facts and reasoning. Get information from a department and selects
inferences. the required tasks for training.
Keywords: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts,
diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates,
distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines,
relates, selects, separates.
Strategies: Fishbowls, debating, questioning what

31

Evaluating: Style judgments about the value
of ideas or materials.
Creating: Builds a structure or design from
varied elements. Set parts together to form
a whole, with emphasis on creating a new
meaning or structure.
happened, run a test
Examples: Choice the most effective solution. Hire the
most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new
budget.
Keywords: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts,
criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates,
evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates,
summarizes, supports
Technologies: survey, blogging
Examples: Write company processes reference. Design a
machine to perform a definite task. Integrates training
from several bases to solve a problem. Reviews the
process to improve the outcome.
Keywords: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes,
creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies,
organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates,
reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.
Strategies: Create a new model, write an essay, network
with others

B. The Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain includes

coordination, physical movement, and use of motor
skills. Enhancing these skills requires practice and is
measured in speed, precision and distance.

The seven major categories are enumerated

from the most straightforward behavior to the most
complex:

FIGURE 12: The Psychomotor Domain

Example of Revised Cognitive Domain by Clark (2012).
The information below is based on explanations of those
theories that appear at Don Clark's well-known "Big Dog Little Dog."

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Perception (awareness): The ability to
use sensory feedback to control the action
of the motor. This ranges from sensory
stimulation to translation through cue
selection.
Set: Readiness to performance. It contains
mental, physical, and expressive sets. These
three sets are characters that predetermine
a person's response to different scenarios
(sometimes called mindsets).
Guided Response: The initial stages in
learning a multifaceted skill that includes
imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of
performance is achieved by practicing.
Mechanism (basic proficiency): This is
the transitional stage in learning a complex
skill. Learned responses have become
Examples:  Notices non-verbal communication
indications. Estimate where a stone will land after it is
thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch
the stone. Adjusts the heat of the oven to correct
temperature by smell and taste of food. Corrects the height
of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are
about the pallet.
Keywords: selects, labels, notices, distinguishes, decides,
classifies, separates, tells, picks.
Examples:  Tells and acts upon a sequence of steps in a
work process. Distinguish one's abilities and boundaries.
Shows yearning to learn a new method (motivation).
Keywords: starts, displays, describes, transfers, proceeds,
answers, displays, positions, volunteers.
Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as
demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model.
Responds hand-signals of the instructor while learning to
operate a forklift.
Keywords: duplicates, hints, tracks, react, replicate,
responds.
Examples:  Repair a personal computer. Fix a leaking
faucet. Drive a car.
Keywords: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles,

32
 usual, and the movements can be
performed with some assurance and
proficiency.
Complex Overt Response (Expert) The
skilled performance of motor acts that
involve intricate movement patterns.
Expertise is indicated by a quick, accurate,
and highly coordinated performance. This
category includes performing without
hesitation.
Adaptation: Skills are well established, and
the individual can adjust movement
patterns to fit unique requirements.
Origination: Creating new patterns of
movement to fit a specific situation or
problem. Learning outcomes emphasize
creativity based on highly developed skills.
Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies
The Psychomotor Domain as Conceptualized by Dave (1975). The information below is based on
explanations of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-known "Big Dog Little Dog."
Category
Imitation — Seeing and modeling behavior
after someone else. Performance may be of
low quality.
Manipulation — Being able to take specific
actions by recall or following instructions.
Precision — Refining, becoming more
accurate. Acting a skill within a high degree of
exactness
Articulation — Organizing and familiarizing a
series of actions to achieve harmony and
internal uniformity.
Naturalization — Learning a high-level
performance until it becomes natural, without
needing to reflect much about it.
Psychomotor Domain as Conceptualized by Harrow (1972). The information below is based on
explanations of those theories that appear at Don Clark's well-known "Big Dog Little Dog."
Category
Reflex Movements — Responses that are
not learned, such as an involuntary reaction
Fundamental Movements — Elementary
movements such as walking or grasping.
presents, attaches, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates,
measures, repairs, mixes, organizes, sketches.
Examples:  Drive a car into a tight parallel parking spot.
Manipulates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays
competence while playing the piano.
Keywords: assembles, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates,
measures, mends, mixes, organizes, drafts.
Examples:  Answers effectively to unexpected
experiences.  Changes instruction to meet the needs of the
learners. Do a task with a machine that it is not originally
intended to do
Keywords: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges,
reorganizes, revises, varies.
Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops original
and complete training programming. Generates a new
exercise routine.
Key Words: places, builds, combines, composes,
constructs, produces, designs, initiates, makes, originates.
Example and Key Words (verbs)
Examples: Copying a work of art and performing a skill
while observing a demonstrator.
Keywords: duplicate, follow, imitate, repeat, replicate,
reproduce, trace
Examples: Being able to complete a skill on one's own
after taking lessons or reading about it. Follows
instructions to create a model.
Keywords: act, build, execute, perform
Examples: Working and reworking something so that
it will be just perfect. Perform a skill or task without
assistance. Demonstrate a job as a beginner.
Keywords: adjust, validate, master, perfectionism
Examples: Joining a series of skills to produce a
presentation that involves music, drama, color, sound,
etc., and combining a set of skills or activities to meet
the roleplay requirement.
Keywords: adapt, constructs, combine, creates, modify,
modifies, articulate
Examples:  Steer a vehicle into a tight parallel parking
spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately.
Displays ability while playing the piano. Lebron James is
playing basketball or Tiger Woods hitting a golf ball.
Keywords: create, design, develop, invent, manage,
naturally
Example and Key Words (verbs)
Examples: automatic response
Keywords: reply, respond
Examples: perform a simple task
Keywords: grip an object, throw a golf ball, walk
33
Perceptual Abilities — response to
provocations such as visual, auditory,
kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.
Physical Abilities (fitness) — Stamina must
be developed for further development, such
as strength and agility.
Skilled movements — Advanced learned
moves as one would find in sports or acting.
Nondiscursive communication — Use
useful body languages, such as motions and
facial expressions.
Examples: trail a moving object, recognize a pattern
Keywords: catch a ball, draw or write
Examples:  gain strength, run a marathon
Keywords: agility, endurance, strength
Examples: Using a progressive series of integrated
movements, perform a role in a stage play or play in a
set of sequences in a sports game
Keywords: adapt, constructs, creates, modifies
Examples:  Express one's self by using actions and
gestures
Keywords: arrange, compose, interpretation

C. The Affective Domain

In Bloom's taxonomy, the affective domain is one of

three domains. Others are the psychomotor and
cognitive (Bloom et al., 1956).

The affective domain contains how we deal with things

expressively, such as feelings, values, appreciation,
enthusiasm, motivations, and attitudes. The five major
classes are listed from the most straightforward
behavior to the most complex:

FIGURE 10: The Affective Domain

Example of Affective Domain by Clark (2012). The
information below is based on explanations of those theories
that appear at Don Clark’s well-known “Big Dog Little Dog."

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Receiving Phenomena: Alertness, willingness
to listen, selected attention
Responds to Phenomena: Active
participation by the learners. Wait and react to
a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes
may underscore compliance in response,
willingness to meet, or satisfaction in
responding (motivation).
Valuing: Valuing is created on the
internalization of a set of specified values.
Evidences to these values are expressed in the
learner's explicit behavior.
Examples: Listen to others with esteem. Listen for and
recall the name of newly introduced people
Keywords: acknowledge, asks, attentive, courteous,
dutiful, follows, gives, listens, understands
Examples: Contributes to class discussions. Gives a
demonstration. Distinguish the safety rules and
practice them.
Keywords: responds, supports, aids, conforms,
follows, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs,
presents, illustrates, tells
Examples: Proves trust in the democratic process. Is
prone to differences between individuals and cultures
(diversity in values). Shows problem-solving
capability. Proposes and follows up with a dedication
to a program for social change. Informs the
management of issues one feels about.
Keywords: appreciates, cherish, treasure,
demonstrates, initiates, invites, joins, justifies,

34
 proposes, respect, shares
Organization: Organizes morals into Examples: Recognizes the need for the balance
priorities by contrasting different values, between freedom and ethical conduct.
resolving conflicts between them, creating a Explains the role of systematic planning in problem-
unique value system. solving. Accepts the standards of professional ethics.
Creates a life plan in harmony with your abilities, your
interests, and your beliefs. Prioritize time efficiently to
meet the needs of the organization, the family, and the
self.
keywords: associates, relates, synthesizes
Internalizes Values (characterization): Has a Examples: Shows autonomy while working
system of value that controls their behavior. independently. Collaborates in group activities (shows
The behavior is the learner's omnipresent, teamwork). Requires an analytical approach when
constant, predictable, and most important solving problems—displays day-to-day professional
characteristic. Instructional goals are adherence to ethical practice. In light of new evidence,
concerned with general adjustment trends review judgments and change behavior. People value
(personal, social, emotional) for the student. what they are for and not how they look.
Keywords: acts, discriminates, displays, influences,
modifies, performs, qualifies, questions, revises,
serves, solves, verifies

Alternative to Bloom: Structure of Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Taxonomy

Although Bloom's Taxonomy has been very useful in expanding learning from just recalling to more
nuanced cognitive systems, such as assessing and evaluating, new models have arisen. Nevertheless, with
the revised taxonomy, it becomes more useful.
 
One model which may prove more useful is the taxonomy of the System of Observed Learning Outcome
(SOLO). This model defines degrees of increasing complexity in the comprehension of subjects inside a
learner (Biggs, Collis, 1982). This makes both teachers and students understand the learning process.

The model consists of five levels in the

order of understanding, according to Clark
(2012):

Pre-structural. The learner does not

understand the lesson and uses a way of going
about it that is too simple — the learner is
uncertain about the lesson or subject.
Uni-structural. The learner 's answer focuses
only on one specific aspect — the learner only
has a basic understanding of the subject
matter.
Multi-structural. The learner 's answer
focuses on many important factors but is
handled independently — the learner has
several ideas about the subject but is detached
from them. This standard of assessment is mainly quantitative.
Relational. The different aspects have been incorporated into a consistent whole — the learner has
mastered the subject's nature by bringing all of
the pieces together. That level is what an Figure 11: Diagram giving an overview of the SOLO
Taxonomy approach.
adequate understanding of a topic usually
implies.
Extended abstract. The previous integrated whole can be conceptualized to a higher degree of abstraction
and expanded into a new subject or area — the learner can now generate new ideas based on her mastery
of the subject.

35
 When learning continues, that becomes more complicated. SOLO is a way to define learning results in terms
of their complexity, allowing us to assess the students ' work in terms of their content and not how many
bits of that they have gotten right.
At first, we select only one or a few aspects of the function (unistructural), then many aspects because they
are unrelated (multistructural). We learn how to combine them into a whole (relational), and eventually,
we can generalize the whole to applications that have not yet been taught (extended abstract).
The diagram lists verbs characteristic of each of those stages. SOLO can be applied not only in assessment
but in designing the curriculum in terms of the level of learning outcomes intended, which helps implement
the constructive alignment.

Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 6

In answering the questions, consider the rubrics attached herewith:

2 – (needs 1–
Criteria 4 – (very good) 3 – (good) Score
improvement) (poor)
The answer given is
The answer No
relevant to the The answer is
The given attempt to
information somewhat
relevance of provides answer
presented and relevant and
the answer relevant the
provides additional holds less focus.
information. question.
information.
The elaboration of The
the answer is based elaboration The elaboration
The No
on the information of the of the answer is
uniqueness elaboratio
presented and use answer is misleading to
of the n attempt
other support from based on the the information
answer was given
other theories and information discussed
principles presented
Answers
No
Answers given are given are
consistenc
consistent with facts consistent Answers given
y
Writing Objectives for Competencies to Outcomes

A) Construct three learning targets under each type of learning targets.

I. Knowledge of the Content

1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
II. Reasoning
1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
III. Skills

36
1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
IV. Products/Performances
1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
V. Dispositions
1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________

B) Pick 5 topics/subjects among those similar to your area of expertise. Create at least three learning
goals, and identify the correct method of assessing each learning goal. Write down your responses
in the space below (refer to the rubrics present)

Topic Learning Target Assessment Method

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

37
UNIT III – DESIGNING AND DEVELOPING ASSESSMENTS

OVERVIEW

Quality assessment takes center stage on the learning process. In fact, it is a vital
component of the instructional process. The evaluation and judgment of a teacher on student
performance are based on information obtained in using assessment instruments whose quality is
of paramount importance. Every teacher should have the necessary skill to develop quality test
items. It is a teacher’s mandate to procure for the learners the optimum evaluation strategy.

Teachers who create effective tests, develop remedial instruction and allow students
several attempts to elicit success can improve their teaching method and facilitate student
learning. When instructional process incorporates effective classroom assessments so as to make
them the central feature in student learning, both students and teachers derive unlimited benefits.

This unit presents topics on how to select the right assessment objectives for written tests,
design tables of specifications, construct various types of traditional test formats, establish the
validity and reliability of tests and examine the quality of individual test item through item
analysis.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. describe the features of a properly accomplished test;

2. match learning outcomes with appropriate assessment method;

3. set appropriate instructional objectives for written tests;

4. construct one-way and two-way Table of Specifications for a written test;

SETTING UP

Let’s find out how much you already know about the topics in this unit.
I. True or False
Directions: Encircle T if the statement is right and F if the statement is.

T F 1. Double negative statements must be provided in constructing alternative

response test.
T F 2. Essay examination is easy to score.
T F 3. The options and distractors must be probable with others in the
construction of multiple choice tests.
T F 4. Dates and terms should be harmonized in constructing matching tests.

38
 T F 5. The items in a matching test is 15 as a maximum.
T F 6. Essay test is advantageous to students with good penmanship.
T F 7. A balanced matching type is preferable.
T F 8. The items of a matching test must appear in one page.
T F 9. It is psychological to give a test before and after a holiday.
T F 1 10. A periodic succession in the response samples should be observed for
facility in scoring.
T F 11. The objective test encourages cheating and guessing.
T F 12. Essay tests train the core of systematizing, asserting and analyzing.
T F 13. Over-mutilated statements should be included in constructing
completion tests.
T F 14. Options of a matching test must be alphabetically placed if the sequence
is according to dates.
T F 15. Statement form is preferable to direct question in simple recall.

II. Multiple choice

Directions: Select the best answer from the four options given in every item. WRITE ONLY THE LETTER of
the correct option on the space provided.

_____1. This test is mostly appropriate when you need to measure the learners’ ability to identify the
relationship between similar items.
a. matching c. analogy
b. multiple choice d. rearrangement
_____2. Which one DOES NOT belong to the group?
a. matching c. completion
b. multiple choice d. true-false
_____3. The other name for a completion test
a. simple recall c. true-false
b. same-different d. filling the blank
_____4. Which of the following DOES NOT belong to the group?
a. multiple choice c. alternative response
b. matching d simple recall
_____5. A type of test where 3 or more plausible options are provided in each item.
a. alternative response c. multiple choice
b. completion d. analogy
_____6. When is a test valid?
a. If it yields scores which are consistent.
b. If the students get high scores in the test.
c. If the test results in few or minimal errors.
d. If the test turn in scores which help one to accomplish his purpose.
_____7. One of the characteristics of a properly completed examination is content validity. What is the initial
act before test construction?
a. Find out if the items are well constructed.
b. Judge the scope or content coverage.
c. Find out if the total of items are sufficient.
d. Examine the objectives set for the test to determine if they are consistent with the subject
matter.
_____8. We use a Table of Specification or test blue print in ________________________.
a. taking test scores c. outlining the test content
b. formulating an exam plan d. listing instructional objectives
_____9. A student scored 80 in a mental ability test one Monday morning. After15 days, the same was
retested and she got the same score. What characteristic of a good test was manifested?
a. administrability c. reliability
b. scorability d. validity
_____10. If your Licensure Examination Test (LET) items sufficiently sample the competencies listed in the
syllabi, it can be said that the LET possesses __________ validity.
a. concurrent c. content
b. construct d. predictive

39
EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Let’s read these:

Selecting proper assessment techniques is, among others an intimidating endeavor of a beginning
teacher. The method and quality of the assessment instrument are essential since the evaluation and
judgement that you will render on your students are based on data you obtain using these instruments.
These qualities are so important in assessment methods since they are indicative of your students’ extent
of learning. If there is dearth of expected qualities, evaluation and assessment will be perceived as doubtful.
instructional goals and objectives will be ambiguous.
The success of the teaching-learning process veers toward the accountability earmarked from
assessment in a classroom atmosphere. The results are two-pronged: first, how the learners studied well to
hurdle the subject or course, and second, how the teachers conducted effective instruction. Teachers resort
to summative tests to objectively measure student performance, a method acceptable to the academe and
other concerned parties. To be able to create effective tests, you need to read the following information so
that you will be guided in developing classroom-based tests for valid measurement of how well a student
academically fared.

Features of a Properly Accomplished Test:

Teachers usually receive complaints or comments from students regarding assessments, for
example, test coverage. Some tests may not be covered as to content. Students may not have wholly
studied the subject matter. As a result, the assessment tools are complicated and unaligned with action
verbs in the learning outcomes.
In order to ensure high quality assessment, validity should be in tandem with reliability. Doubts are
cast on reliability if inconsistencies result as the tests are being administered over varying time periods,
sample questions or sample groups.
The tandem is highlighted when collating information or evidence about student achievement.
Santos (2007), De Guzman (2015) and Balagtas (2020) expound the main characteristics of a good test.
1. Validity
The word "valid" is derived from the Latin validus, meaning strong. In view of assessment, it is deemed
valid if it measures what it is supposed to. Validity claims as factual to measure. Your assessment is valid if
it measures your learner’s actual knowledge and performance. For instance, a test of reading
comprehension does not require mathematical ability.
Ways to Establish Validity Description
Face Validity Validity that relies on the physical attributes of a test
When the test is presented well, administered well, free of
errors

Content Validity The extent an evaluation procedure adequately represents

content of the assessment domain being tested

40
 Predictive Validity A measure should predict a future criterion
Example is an entrance exam predicting the grades of the
students after the first semester
Construct Validity The components or factors of the test should contain items
that are correlated
Concurrent Validity Two or more measures of the same characteristics are
present for each examinee
Convergent Validity Components or factors of a test are hypothesized to
accomplish a positive correlation
Divergent Validity Components or factors of a test are hypothesized to effect a
negative correlation

Factors which affect the validity of test scores (Ramadan, 2018):

A. Factors in the test:
1. Vague test directions
2. Difficulty of the reading vocabulary and flaw in sentence structure
3. Too easy or too difficult test items
4. Ambiguous statements
5. Inappropriate test items for measuring a particular outcome.
6. Insufficient time provided to take the test
7. The test is so concise
8. Test items are not scaled in the level of difficulty from “easy” to “difficult”

B. Factors in test administration and scoring:

1. Unfair response to students, who individually ask for clarification
2. Cheating during testing
3. Unreliable subjective scoring of essay type answers
4. Insufficient time to finish the examination
5. Learner(s) experience malaise before and/or during the test

C. Factors related to students:

1. Test anxiety of the students
2. Physical and psychological state of the student

2. Reliability - The reliability of an assessment method refers to its consistency. It is also a term
synonymous with dependability or stability. It is the extent to which an assessment tool produces a stable
and consistent result.
Types of Reliability What it is? How do you establish it?

  You have a test, and you need to administer it

Test-Retest A measure to determine
the stability of test results
A measure of equivalence
Parallel Forms or comparative analysis
 
Inter-Rater
A measure of agreement
 
 A measure of how You correlate the performance on each item with
consistently each item
one time to a group of examinees. Administer it
again at another time to the same group of
examinees.
There are two versions of a test. The items need
to exactly measure the same skill. Administer one
form at one time and the other form to another
time to the “same” group of participants.
This procedure is used to determine the
consistency of multiple raters when using rating
scales and rubrics to judge performance samples,
essays, portfolios, etc. The reliability here refers
to the similar or consistent ratings provided by
more than one rater when they use an
assessment instrument

41
 Internal Consistency measures the same the overall performance across participants
underlying construct

Ways to improve reliability of assessment results

a. Utilize enough number of test items, longer tests are more credible
b. Create tests with the correct level of difficulty
c. Employ impartial raters or observers who can give reasonably the same or almost similar scores on
performance
d. Be sure that there ample time to finish the assessment task
e. Focus on the the careful formulation of test questions
f. Conduct regular item analysis to improve ambiguous or poorly answered questions.

3. Practicality and Efficiency - Practical test is a test that is developed and administered within the
available time and with available resources. In other Moreover, a test should be easy to design, to
administer, to mark and to interpret as to results. Efficiency, in this context, refers to the development,
administration and grading of assessment with the least effort and resources.
4. Fairness. The fairness of a test refers to freedom from any biases. Your students must know exactly what
the learning targets are and what method of assessment will be used. They have to be informed how their
progress will be evaluated in order to make strategies and perform optimally.
Other aspects of fairness include:
1. Opportunity to learn further;
2. Pre-requisite knowledge and skills;
3. Avoidance of student stereotyping
4. Avoidance of bias in assessment procedures; and
5. Accommodating special needs and requirements

Other Support Materials Available:

For this lesson, there are other materials that are available from your course professor. These include the
following:
1. A PowerPoint presentation on the topic Characteristics of a Good Test
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gzv8Cm1jC4M

Learning Target and Assessment Method Match

De Guzman, et al., (2015) defined learning target as a description of performance that includes what
learners should know and be able to do. This definition is similar to that of a learning outcome. In other
words, learning targets provide students with a roadmap along which points to their destination and what
to expect upon reaching it.
Learning targets should comply with the standards prescribed by a program or level and should
align with the instructional or learning objectives of a subject or course. Balagtas, et al (2020). Simply put,
teachers must be cognizant of the learning targets of the lesson prior to classroom instruction. Without the
alignment between learning targets and learning activities/assessments, students will spend time on
activities, assignments and assessments that stray from intended goals. If the objective is to “defend" an
idea, but the assessment used is a multiple-choice quiz, students cannot defend the idea with proper skills.
What is taught in the classroom instruction and subsequently assessed should be aligned with the
learning targets of a lesson. When assessment is aligned with instruction, both students and teachers
benefit. There is a better chance for learners to learn more because instruction is focused assessed
appropriately. Teachers are also able to focus, making the best use of their time. Because assessment
involves real learning, they can integrate it into their daily classroom activities.

Types of Learning Targets

Chappuis, Stiggins, Chappuis, & Arter (2012) classify learning targets into five categories:
knowledge, reasoning, skill, product and disposition.
Types of Learning Description Examples
Targets
Knowledge targets Refers to factual information, You can identify and describe the
procedural knowledge and conceptual elements of design in a work of art.

42
 understanding that strengthen each
discipline.
Reasoning targets Specify the thought processes students You can evaluate the quality of your
are to learn to do well within a range work in order to improve it.
of subjects.
Skill targets Use of a variety knowledge and/or You can use an air brush to create
reasoning to perform or demonstrate different effects.
physical skills
Product targets Use of knowledge, reasoning and skills You can create a still life oil painting.
in creating a fixed or tangible product
Disposition Targets Refer to attitudes, motivations, and You question the validity of various
interests that affect students’ positions including your own.
approaches to learning.

Appropriate Methods of Assessment

Once learning targets are clearly set, you can easily determine the appropriate assessment method.
McMillan (2007) as cited by De Guzman et al (2015) prepared a scorecard as a guide on how well a
particular assessment method measures each level of learning. The table below shows the relative strength
of each assessment method in measuring different learning targets.
Table 1. Learning Targets and Assessment Methods (McMillan 2007)
Assessment Methods
Learning Targets Selected-response Essay Performance Oral Observation Student Self-
and Brief- Tasks questioning assessment
constructed
response

Knowledge and
Simple 5 4 3 4 3 3
Understanding

Deep Understanding
2 5 4 4 2 3
and Reasoning

Skills 1 3 5 2 5 3

Products 1 1 5 2 4 4

Affects 1 2 4 4 4 5

Note: Higher numbers indicate better matches (e.g. 5 = excellent, 1 =poor)

Other support Materials Available:

For this lesson, the following materials are available from your course professor.
1. A PowerPoint presentation on the topic Learning Target and Assessment Method
2. https://study.com/academy/lesson/matching-assessment-items-to-learning-objectives.html

Preparing a Table of Specifications

A Table of Specifications or (TOS) is a test map that guides the teacher in constructing a test. It is a table
that maps out the test objectives, contents, or topics covered by the test, the levels of cognitive behavior to
be measured; the distribution of test items, number placement and weights of test items and the test
format. It helps ensure that the course’s intended outcomes, assessments and instructions are aligned.
Importance of TOS:
1. Ensures that the instructional objectives and what the test captures match
2. Ensures that the test developer will not overlook details that are considered essential to a good test
3. Makes developing a test easier and more efficient

43
 4. Ensures that the test will sample all important content areas and processes
5. Is useful in planning and organizing
6. Offers an opportunity for teachers and students to clarify achievement expectations

Steps in Developing a Table of Specifications

1. Determine the objectives of the test. There are 3 types of objectives: cognitive, affective and
psychomotor. When planning for assessment, choose only the objectives that can be best captured
by a written test. There are objectives that are not meant for a written test. For example, if you test
the psychomotor domain, it is better to do a performance-based assessment. Those that require
demonstration or creation of something tangible like projects would also be more appropriately
measured by performance-based assessment. For a written test, you can consider cognitive
objectives that could be measured using common formats for testing.
2. Determine the coverage of the test. Only topics or contents that have been discussed in class should
be included in the test.
3. Calculate the weight for each topic. The weight assigned per topic in the test is based on the time
spent to cover each topic during instruction. The percentage of time for a topic in a test is
determined by dividing the time spent for that topic during instruction by the total amount of time
spent for all topics covered in the test.
4. Determine the number of items for the whole test. As a general rule, students are given 30-60
seconds for each item in test formats with choices. For a one- hour class, this means that the test
should not exceed 60 items. However, you need also to give time for test paper distribution and
giving instructions, the number of items should be less, maybe just 50 items.
5. Determine the number of items per topic. To determine the number of items to be included in the
test, the weights per topic are considered.

Simply remember this equation:

Number of items = no. of hrs spent in teaching the topic x total number of items of the test
total amount of time spent for all topics

Formats of TOS
1. One-way TOS. A one-way TOS maps out the content or topic test objectives, number of hours spent,
format number and placement of items. A one-way TOS cannot ensure that all levels of cognitive behaviors
that should have been developed by the course are covered in the test.
Sample 1. One-Way Table of Specifications
Time Spent on Percent of Class Number
Topics Test Placement
Topic (in hours) Time on Topic of Items

Selection and Organization of Content 6 22.2% 18 1-18

Selection and Use of Teaching

3 11.1% 9 19 - 27
Strategies
Different Approaches and Methods 12 44.4% 35 28 - 62
Selection and Use of Instructional
3 11.1% 9 63-71
Materials
Classroom Management 3 11.1% 9 72-80
27 99.9% 80

2. Two-Way TOS. A two-way TOS reflects not only the content, time spent, and the number of items but
also the levels of cognitive behavior targeted per test content. One advantage of this format is that it allows
one to see the levels of cognitive skills and dimensions of knowledge that are emphasized by the test.
Sample 2. Two-Way Table of Specifications
Item Specification

Topic No. of % No. of R U Ap An E C

Hours Items
21st Century Assessment 2 20% 4 1-3 4-5 6-7
Types of Assessment 3 30% 6 8-10 11-13

44
 Nature of Performance-Based 5 50% 10 14-15 16-18 19-20
Assessment
Total 10 100% 20

Other support Materials Available:

For this lesson, the following materials are available from your course professor.
1. PowerPoint presentation on the topic Preparing a TOS
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6KPuAPuUtgk

Assessment Tools Development

The previous lesson has familiarized you with the initial process in developing classroom tests, let
us now discuss the different methods by which such assessment can be gauged. Years of experience in
school have introduced you to various types of formal and informal tests. To enhance your skills in drafting
effective test items for a particular test format, you must be familiar with such common tests formats. Let
us see how much you remember them.
Categories and Formats of Traditional Tests
As cited by Balagtas, M. (2015), traditional tests fall into two general classifications:
1. Selected-response type, require learners to choose the correct answer from several choices. Selected-
Response Tests include:
a. Multiple Choice Test - it is the most commonly used format in formal testing and typically consists
of a stem (problem), one correct or best alternative (correct answer), and three or more incorrect
alternatives (distractors)
b. True-False or Alternate Response Test - it generally consists of a statement and deciding if the
statement is true (accurate/correct) or false (inaccurate/incorrect)
c. Matching-Type Test - it consists of two sets of items to be matched with each other based on a
specified attribute.

2. Constructed-response type - it requires learners to supply answers to a given question or problem.

a. Short Answer Test - it consists off open-ended questions or incomplete sentences that require
learners to write the correct answer which may consist of a single word or a short phrase. This
includes the following sub-types:
a.1 Completion - it consists of incomplete statements that require the learners to fill in the
blanks with the correct word or phrase.
a.2 Identification - it consists of statements that summon the learners to identify or recall the
terms/concepts, people, places or events being described.
a.3 Enumeration - It directs the learners to list down all possible answers to the question.
b. Essay Test - it consists of problems/questions that require learners to compose or construct
written responses, usually long ones with several paragraphs.
c. Problem-Solving Test - It consists of problems/questions that require learners to solve problems in
quantitative or qualitative settings using knowledge and skills in mathematical concepts and
procedures, and/or other higher-order cognitive skills.

45
 FIGURE 1. Types of Objective tests

General Guidelines in Choosing Appropriate Test Format

How can you design fair, yet challenging tests that accurately gauge student learning? To guide you
on choosing the appropriate test format, you should ask the following questions:
1. What are the objectives or desired learning outcomes lesson/unit?
2. What level of thinking is to be assessed (i.e., remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing,
evaluating or creating)?
3. Is the test matched or aligned with the course’s desired learning outcomes and the course contents
or learning activities?
4. Are the tests realistic to the students?

Test Item Formulation

True-False Test
True or false items are used to measure learners’ ability to identify whether a statement or
proposition is correct/true or incorrect/false. A learner who knows nothing of the content of the test would
have 50% chance of getting the correct answer by sheer guess work. A modified true-false test can offset
the effect of guessing by requiring learners to explain their answer and to disregard a correct answer if the
explanation is incorrect.
Here are some rules of thumb in constructing true-false items as cited by Balagtas, et al (2020),
Santos, et al (2007) and de Guzman et al (2015):
1. Include items that are completely true or completely false.
Faulty: The presidential system of government, where the president is only the head of state or
government, is adopted by the United States, Chile, Panama and South Korea.
Good: The presidential system, where the president is only the head of state or government, is Chile.
2. Avoid lifting statements from the textbook and other learning materials.
3. Use single idea in each test item.
Faulty: The true-false item, which is favored by learners, is often referred to as an alternative-response
item.
Improved: The true-false item is also called an alternative-response item.
4. Refrain from using negatives, especially double negatives.
Faulty: There is nothing illegal about buying goods through the internet.
Good: It is legal to buy things or goods through the internet.
5. Avoid using absolutes such as “always” and “never.”
Faulty: The news and information posted on the CNN website is always accurate.
Good: The news and information posted on the CNN website is usually accurate.
6. Avoid the use of unfamiliar words or vocabulary.

46
Multiple Choice Items
The most versatile type of test since it can take several forms such as completion, questions and
direct form. Writing multiple choice items requires content mastery, writing skills, and time. Only good and
effective items should be included in the test. Poorly-written test-items could be confusing and frustrating
to learners. Each item in a multiple choice test consists of 2 parts: a) the stem, and b) the options. In the set
of options or alternatives, there is a “correct” or “best” option while the others are considered “distracters”.
The following are the general guidelines in writing good multiple choice items.
1. Do not lift and use statements from the textbooks or other learning materials.
2. Keep the vocabulary simple and understandable based on the level of learners/examinees.
3. A direct question is preferred over an incomplete sentence.
Faulty : Cement is ordinarily produced by _____________.
Good : How is cement ordinarily produced?
4. Word the stem positively and avoid double negatives, such as NOT and EXCEPT in a stem. If a negative
word is necessary, underline or capitalize the words for emphasis
Faulty: Which of the following is not a measure of variability?
Good: Which of the following is NOT a measure of variability?
5. Write the stem as clearly described question or task.
Faulty: Validity refers to
a. the consistency of test scores
b. the inference made on the basis of the test scores
c. measurement error as determined by standard deviation
d. the stability of test scores
Good: The inference made on the basis of the test scores refers to
a. Reliability
b. Validity
c. Stability
d. Measurement error

6. Avoid the use of unnecessary words or phrases which are not relevant to the problem at hand.
Faulty: While ironing his formal polo shirt Darwin burned his hand accidentally on the hot iron. This
was due to a transfer of heat because….
Good: Which of the following ways of heat transfer explains why Darwin’s hand was burned after he
touched a hot iron?
7.  Write the distracters to be plausible yet clearly wrong.
Faulty : Which of the following is the largest city in the United States?
a. Michigan
b. London
c. New York
d. Berlin
Good : Which of the following is the largest city in the United States?
a. Los Angeles
b. Chicago
c. New York
d. Miami
8, Write options that are parallel or similar in form and length to avoid giving clues about the correct
answer.
9. Place options in logical order (e.g. alphabetical, shortest to longest)
10. Place correct response randomly to avoid a discernible pattern of correct answers.
11. Use none of the above carefully and only when there one absolutely correct answer.
12. Avoid all of the above option, especially if it is intended to be the correct answer.

Short Answer Test Items

47
 A short answer test item requires the learner to answer a question or to finish an incomplete
statement by filling in the blank with the correct word or phrase.
The following are some guidelines in writing good fill in the blank or completion test items.
1. Omit just the appropriate word from the sentence
Faulty: Every atom has a central _____________called a nucleus.
Good: Every atom has a central core called a(n)______________.
2. Avoid having too many blanks in a statement.
Faulty: The __________ is the answer in _____.
Better: The product is the answer in _________.
3. Be sure that there is only one correct response.
Faulty: A four-sided polygon is called _______________.
Good: A quadrilateral with four equal sided is called ______________.
4. Avoid grammatical clues to the response.
Faulty: A group of islands surrounded by waters is called an _______________
Good: A group of islands surrounded by waters is called a(n) _______________
5. Put the blank at the end of a statement rather than at the beginning.
Faulty: __________________is support system that helps a learner accomplish tasks
Good: A support system that helps a learner accomplish tasks is called __________.

Matching Type Items

The matching test item format requires learners to match a word, sentence or phrase in one column
to a corresponding word, sentence or phrase in second. Column. It is most appropriate when you need to
measure the learner’s ability to identify the relationship or association between similar items. However, it
is not suited for gauging the learners’ higher understanding (analysis and synthesis levels). It can only be
used to assess homogeneous knowledge.

The following are some guidelines in writing good and effective matching type tests:
1. Include homogenous premises and responses in a single matching exercise
2. Clearly indicate in the directions the basis for matching where answers should be written, and if
responses or answer choices can be used more than once.

3. Keep the list relatively short. The ideal number of items is 5 to 10, and a maximum of 15.
4. Arrange premises and responses with maximum clarity. It is desirable to use longer statements as
premises and numbered at the left of the page. The shorter responses are placed at the right and each
identified with letters.
5. Have more responses or answer choices than premises. This will reduce guessing and using the process
of elimination in choosing the correct answer.
6. Place all the premises and responses on a single page
Faulty:
Directions: Match the following.
Food A. Primary reinforcer
Psychoanalysis B. Sigmund Freud
B.F. Skinner C. Operant conditioning
Standard deviation D. Measure of variability
Schizophrenia E. Hallucinations
Good:
Directions: Match the theories in Column I with their advocates in Column II. Write the letter of the correct
answer.
Column I Column II
___ 1. Psychodynamic Theory A. Albert Bandura
___ 2. Trait Theory B. B.F. Skinner
___ 3. Behaviorism C. Carl Rogers
___ 4. Humanism D. Gordon Allport

48
___ 5. Social Learning Theory . Karn Horney
F. Sigmund Freud

Essay Test
Essay test is the preferred method of evaluation when teachers want to measure learners’ higher
order thinking skills particularly their ability to reason, interpret, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate.

Types of Essay Items

Extended response type -requires much longer and complex responses
Restricted response type - the learners are free to organize and expound on their ideas.

Santos, et al (2007) and Balagtas et al 92019) present the following rules of thumb in constructing good
essay questions:
1. Clearly define the intended learning outcomes to be assessed by the essay test.
2. Refrain from using essay test for intended learning outcomes that are better assessed by other kind
of assessment.
3. Phrase the direction in such a way that students are guided on the key concepts to be included.
Example: Write an essay on the topic: “Plant Photosynthesis” using the following key words and
phrases: chlorophyll, sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, by-product, stomata.
4. Note that the learners are properly guided in terms of the keywords that the teacher is looking for
in this essay test.
5. Inform the students on the rubrics to be used for grading their essays. This rule allows the learners
to focus on relevant and substantive materials rather than on peripheral and unnecessary facts and
bits of information.
6. Present tasks that are fair, reasonable and realistic to students
7. Be specific in the prompts about the time allotment.

Other support Materials Available:

For this lesson, there are other materials that are available to your course professor. These include the
following:
1. PowerPoint presentation on the topic Test Construction
2. Handbook on Test Development - Testing and Evaluation https://testing.wisc.edu/Handbook
%20on%20Test%20Construction.pdf

Item Analysis
After drafting objective test items and administering it, how do you determine if the test items are
properly constructed as to degree of difficulty? How do you set apart students who excel well on the
overall test, and those who do not? An item analysis, as a valuable procedure, can easily provide the
teachers with answers to both questions.
Here are the basic concepts of item analysis:
Item analysis is a technique which evaluates the effectiveness of items in tests. It helps to improve
the test by revising or discarding ineffective items.
An item analysis provides three kinds of important information about the quality of test items.

Item difficulty: A measure of whether an item was too easy or too hard.
Item discrimination: A measure of whether an item discriminated between students who knew the material
well and students who did not.

49
Effectiveness of alternatives: Determination of whether distractors (incorrect but plausible answers)
appear to be identified by the less able students and not by the more able students.

How to Determine if an Item Is Easy or Difficult

An item is difficult if majority of learners are unable to provide the correct answer. The item is easy
if majority of the learners are able to answer correctly. An item can discriminate if the examinees who
score high in the test can answer more items correctly than examinees who got low scores (Balagtas, et al.,
2015).
Below is a data set of five items on the addition and subtraction of integers. Follow the procedure to
determine the difficulty and discrimination index of each item.
1. Get the scores of each learner and arrange scores from highest to lowest.
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5
Student A 0 0 1 1 1
Student B 1 1 1 0 1
Student C 0 0 0 1 1
Student D 0 0 0 0 1
Student E 0 1 1 1 1
Student F 1 0 1 1 0
Student G 0 0 1 1 0
Student H 0 1 1 0 0
Student I 1 0 1 1 1
Student H 1 0 1 1 0
Obtain the upper and lower 27% of the group. Multiply 0.27 by the total number of students, a value of
2.7. the rounded whole number value is 3.0. Get the top 3 students and the bottom 3 students based on
their total scores. The top 3 students are students 2, 5,9 while the bottom 3 are students 7, 8 and 4. the rest
of the students are not included in the item analysis.
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Total score
Student 2 1 1 1 0 1 4
Student 5 0 1 1 1 1 4
Student 9 1 0 1 1 1 4
Student 1 0 0 1 1 1 3
Student 6 1 0 1 1 0 3
Student 10 1 0 1 1 0 3
Student 3 0 0 0 1 1 2
Student 7 0 0 1 1 0 2
Student 8 0 1 1 0 0 2
Student 4 0 0 0 0 1 1
2. Obtain the proportion correct for each item. This is computed for the upper 27% group and the lower
27% group. This is done by summating the correct answer per item and dividing it by the total number of
students.
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Total score
Student 2 1 1 1 0 1 4
Student 5 0 1 1 1 1 4
Student 9 1 0 1 1 1 4
Total 2 2 3 2 3
Proportion of the high group (PH)
0.67 0.67 1.00 0.67 1
Student 7 0 0 1 1 0 2
Student 8 0 1 1 0 0 2
Student 4 0 0 0 0 1 1
Total 0 1 2 1 1
Proportion of the low group (PL)
0.00 0.33 0.67 0.33 9.33

3. The item difficulty is obtained using the formula:

Item difficulty = pH + pL
2
The difficulty is interpreted using the table:

50
 Difficulty Index Remark
0.76 or higher Easy item
0.25 to 0.75 Average item
0.24 or lower Difficult item

Computation
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5
= 0.67 + 0 = 0.67+0.33 = 2.0 + 0.67 = 1.00 + 0.33 = 1.00 + 0.33
2 2 2 2 2
Index of 0.33 0.50 0.83 0.50 0.67
difficulty
Item Difficult Average Easy Average Average
difficulty
4. The index of discrimination is obtained using the formula:
Item discrimination = pH - pL
The value is interpreted using the table:
Index discrimination Remark
0.40 and above Very good item
0.30 - 0.39 Good item
0.20 - 0.29 Reasonably good item
0.10 - 0.19 Marginal item
Below 0.10 Poor item

Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5

= 0.67 - 0 = 0.67 - 0.33 = 2.00 - 0.67 = 1.00 - 0.33 = 1.00 - 0.33
Discrimination 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.67
index
Discrimination Very good Good item Good item Good item Very good
item item

Other support Materials Available:

For this lesson, there are other materials that are available to your course professor. These include the
following:
1. PowerPoint presentation on the topic Test Item Analysis
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cHmVECRT-HE
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oI_7HkgZKj8
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c8r_6bT_VQo
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 7
 (On learning targets and methods of assessment)

For each of the following situations or questions, indicate which assessment method provides the best match.
Then provide a brief explanation why you choose that method of assessment. Choices are selected response,
essay, performance-based, oral question, observation and self report.

1. 1. Sir Marlon wants to check his students if they are able to construct different types of graphic organizers
correctly like the examples just demonstrated in class.

Method: ________________________

Why?
___________________________________________________________________________________________

51
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________.

1. 2. Mr. Cabual wants to see if his students are comprehending the characteristics of teacher-made tests before
moving to the next set of instructional activities.

Method: ________________________

Why?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________.

1.3. Ms. Esguerra wants to find out how many spelling words her students know.

Method: ________________________

Why?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________.

1.4. Ms. Castro wants to see how well her students can compare and contrast the traditional face to face learning
from flexible learning

Method: ________________________

Why?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

52
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________.

1.5. Mr. Rufino’s objective is to enhance his students’ self-efficacy and attitude toward school.

Method: ________________________

Why?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________.

1.6. Teacher Mai wants to know if her class can identify the different parts of a computer.

Method: ________________________

Why?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________.

Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 8
(On validity and reliability)

Answer the following questions briefly.

53
2.1 Should teachers be concerned about relatively technical features of assessment such as validity and reliability?
Why or why not?

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

2.2 Which of the following statements is correct, and why?

2.2.1 Validity is impossible without strong reliability.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

2.2.2 A test can be reliable and without validity.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

2.2.3 A valid test is reliable

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

54
2.3. Mr. Villanueva asks the other math teachers in his high school to review his midterm to see if the test items
represent his learning targets. Which type of evidence of validity is being used, and why?

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 9
(On fairness, practicality and positive consequences)
3.1 Which aspect of fairness is illustrated in each of the following assessment situations?

55
 3.1.1 Learners complained because they were not told what topic to study for the long test

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3.1.2 Learners studied the wrong way for the test ( e.g., they memorized the content).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3.1.3 The instructor was unable to discuss the last chapter that was given on the final exam.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3.1.4 The test was about a story about life in Manila and students who had been to Manila showed
better comprehension scores than students who had not been there.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 4 (On Test Construction)

4.1 Give an example to illustrate the following rules of thumb in the construction of a true-false test.
4.1.1 Avoid giving clues in the body of the question.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

56
4.1.2 Avoid using determiners “always”, “never”, and other adverbs which tend to be always true or always
false.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4.1.3. Avoid long sentences which tend to be true. Keep sentences short.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4.1.4 Avoid a systematic pattern for true and false statements.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4.1.5 Avoid ambiguous sentences which can be interpreted as true and at the same time false.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4.2 Give an example to illustrate the following rules of thumb in the construction of multiple choice
tests:
4.2.1 Phrase the stem to allow for only one correct or best answer.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4.2.2 Avoid giving away the answer in the stem.

57
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4.2.3 Choose distracters appropriately.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4.2.4 Choose distracters so that they are all equally plausible.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4.2.5. Phrase questions so that they will test higher order thinking skills.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 10
Directions: Construct a 10-item matching type on the topic “Parts of Computer and their Uses”

58
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 11
Directions: Construct a 10-item supply type test on the topic “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.”

59
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 12
(On Item Analysis)

Find the difficulty index in each of the following situation:

1. N = 60, number of wrong answers; upper 25% = 2; lower 25% = 6

60
2. N = 80, number of wrong answers; upper 25% = 2; lower 25% = 9

3. N = 30, number of wrong answers; upper 25% = 1; lower 25% = 6

UNIT IV – DESIGNING ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

OF ASSESSMENT RESULTS

OVERVIEW
Statistics plays a vital role in the complexities of life. It aids in decision making, summarizes or
describes data, helps to forecast or predict future outcomes, aids in making inferences, and helps in
comparisons or establishing relationships. In education, statistics give information about the school's
population change (statistics in enrolment and dropout rate), assist in processing specific evaluations, and
surveys weregiven to improve the school system and evaluate the achievements, grades, and in
preparations of the test (proficiency level).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. determine the different ways in presenting assessment results;
2. present assessment results using textual, tabular and/or graphical;
3. identify the level of measurements; and
4. utilize the various measures in interpreting assessment results.

61
SETTING UP
What data was gathered by SWS (at least 5)?

MORE PINOYS FAVOR DIVORCE – SWS

By CATHERINE S. VALENTE, The Manila Times
March 11, 2018
More Filipinos support legalizing divorce in the country, especially those with live-in partners,
according to the latest Social Weather Stations (SWS) survey.
The poll, conducted on December 8 to 16, 2017, showed an average 53 percent of adult Filipinos
nationwide agree with the statement, "Married couples who have already separated and cannot reconcile
anymore should be allowed to divorce so that they can get legally married again." The survey was
conducted using face-to-face interviews of 1,200 adults, aged 18 years old and above, nationwide.
Thirty-two percent disagreed with the statement while 15 percent were undecided resulting in a
net agreement score of +21, classified as "moderately strong." SWS noted that support for legalization of
divorce was "very strong" among women with live-in partners (+44), men with live-in partners (+37) and
widowed or separated men (+33).
Metro Manila support for divorce was strongestat +35 ("very strong"). Support from the rest of
Luzon, the Visayas and Mindanao was "moderately strong" at +23, +14 and +15, respectively.
Catholics support for divorce was strongest at +23, followed by other Christians at +12. Members of
the Iglesiani Cristo (Church of Christ) felt "neutral" about it at -8. SWS said although it interviewed
Muslims, the results were not relevant as divorce is legal under Shari'ah Law.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Statistics is the process of collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting data to create a valid conclusion and rational decisions.

Stages of Statistical Enquiry

a. Collection of Data – the process of data gathering, such as interview, questionnaires, tests,
observations, registrations, and experiments.
b. Presentation of Data – organizing of data through tabular, graphical, or textual presentation.
c. Analysis of Data – the process of extracting from the given data relevant and noteworthy
information using statistical techniques and methods
d. Interpretation of Data – drawing of conclusions or inferences from the analyzed data.

There are two divisions in statistics, which are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Descriptive Statistics is a statistical procedure concerned with describing the characteristics and
properties of a group of persons, places or things that based on confirmable facts. It organizes the
description, presentation and interpretation of data gathered.

Inferential Statistics is a statistical procedure used to draw inferences from the population by obtaining
information from the sample by using techniques of descriptive statistics.

Classification of Variables

Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Qualitative variable – contains categorical or qualitative responses. It refers to the characteristics or
attributes of the sample such as civil status, religious affiliations, gender
Quantitative variable – contains numerical responses representing an amount or quantity such as height,
weight, number of children
a. Discrete – values obtained by counting, e.g., births, students in the class
b. Continuous – values obtained by measurement, e.g., age, height

Dependent – a variable which is affected by another variable, e.g., test scores

Independent – a variable which affects the other variable
e.g., number of hours spent for studying

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Levels of Measurements of Variables
Normally, when you hear the term measurement, you may think terms like in measuring length (ie.
the length of a book) or measuring a quantity (ie. a cup of sugar). In statistics, the term measurement deals
with the scales of measurement. Scales of measurement refer to the variables/numbers are being defined
and categorized. Each scale of measurement has properties that determines the suitability for use of a
particular statistical analyses. The data can be categorized into nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

Nominal: data are categorical and the numbers are used as identifiers or a representation. The
numbers on the back of a jersey (COED Blazer 1 = Juan dela Cruz) and the social security number are some
examples of a nominal data. If you conduct a survey and you will include gender as a variable, code the
Female as 1 and Male as 2 or vice versa when you enter your data into the computer. Thus, using numbers
1 and 2 can be used to represent the categories of data.
Ordinal: it denotes an ordered series of associations or rank order. In a contest, an individuals are
competing to achieve first, second, or third place. The first, second, and third place represents ordinal data.
If Rose takes first and Willy takes second, we do not know if the competition was close; we only know that
Rose outperformed Willy. Likert-type scales also represent ordinal data. Basically, these scales do not
represent a measurable quantity. An individual may respond 8 to a question and he actually feel less than
someone who responded 5. Another person may not be in half as much pain if he responded 4 than if he
responded 8. This data may only indicate that an individual responded 6 is in less pain than a person
responded 8 and in more pain than a person responded 4. Therefore, Likert-type scales represent a
ranking.
Interval:it represents a quantity and has equal units in which zero indicates an additional point of
measurement is an interval scale. For Example 10 degree Fahrenheit or -10 degrees Fahrenheit are an
interval data. Each of these scales are a direct measures of a quantity with equality of units. Thus, zero does
not represent the absolute lowest value. Rather, it is the point on a scale with numbers both above and
below it.
Ratio: it is a scale of measurement which is similar to the interval scale that represents quantity
and has equality of units. However, ratio has an absolute zero (no numbers exist below zero). It is
commonly used in physical measures like height and weight. If one is measuring a height of a person in
centimeters, there is quantity, equal units, and that measure cannot go below zero centimeters. A negative
height is not possible.
The table below shows a summary of fundamental differences between the four scales of
measurement

DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is gathering information from some person or some other ways to get data. Data collection
is done to keep on record for further use, to make essential decisions about different problems, and to
disseminate information on to others.

Primary Data - the collection of data from the first-hand source. This type of data is mostly pure and
original.

Secondary Data –the collection of data from the second-hand source. Information could be from another
researcher or agency.

DATA-GATHERING TECHNIQUES
Method Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Direct or
Researcher has direct contact to Clarification can do Costly and time-
interview
the respondents easily consuming
method
Indirect or Researcher gives or distributes Saves time and money; Problem of retrieval
questionnaire questionnaire to the A large number of

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 respondents either by personal
method delivery or by mail samples can reach

Information is based on the

Data are limited to what
Registration compliance with specific laws, Most reliable since law
is registered in the
Method policies, rules, regulations, or enforces it
documents
standard practices.
The researcher wants to control
Lots of threats to
Experimental the factors affecting the variable Can go beyond plain
internal or external
Method being studied to find out cause description
validity
and effect relationships
Data can be quickly
Utilized to gather data
gathered with the Information may be
Observation regarding attitudes, behavior or
available time of the subjected to subjective
method values and cultural pattern of
researcher since it can judgments
the samples under investigation
be done anytime.

DATA PRESENTATION

The collected data can be presented in 3 different ways which include:

1. Textual
2. Tabular
3. Graphical

TEXTUAL PRESENTATION

Data presented in a paragraph or in sentences are said to be in textual form. This includes an
enumeration of essential characteristics, emphasizing the most significant features, and highlighting the
most striking attributes of the set of data.

Example:
According to a rapid survey conducted by the government, 77 percent of micro and small firms and
62 percent of medium-sized firms had to close due to the enhanced community quarantines. Those that
remained open suffered a 66.5 percent drop in sales.
The growth forecast for 2020 assumes that the containment measures will gradually ease in the
second half of the year, and economic activities return in some sectors of the economy. Given income losses
and heightened uncertainty, household consumption and private investment are expected to remain weak.
However, economic growth prospects and poverty figures are expected to improve in succeeding
years driven by a rebound in consumption, a stronger push in public investment, supportive fiscal and
monetary policies, and the recovery of global growth. Economic growth is projected to return to above 6
percent in 2021 and 7 percent in 2022. Increased economic activity surrounding national elections will also
boost growth in 2022.
(Philippines: Social Assistance to Poor Households, Support for Small Enterprises Key to Broad-Based
Recovery; http://worldbank.org; June 9, 2020)

TABULAR PRESENTATION

The tabular method makes use of rows and columns. The data are presented in a systematic and
orderly manner, which catches one's attention and may facilitate the comprehension and analysis of the
data presented.

Frequency Distribution Table

The frequency distribution table (FDT) is a statistical table that shows frequency of observations
for each of the defined classes or categories.

Parts of Statistical Table

1. Table Heading – contains table number and title of the table
2. Body – it is the main part of the table that covers the information or figures
3. Stubs or classes –it is theclassification or categories describing the data and usually found at the
left most side of the table.
Boxhead – located in the top of the body which includes the stubhead, the master caption and the column
caption.

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Types of Frequency Distribution Table

1. Qualitative or Categorical FDT – A frequency distribution table where the data are grouped
according to some qualitative characteristics; data are grouped into non-numerical categories.

Table 2
Frequency Distribution of Gender of the Respondents
Gender Number of Respondents
Male 77
Female 45
Total 122

2. Quantitative FDT – a frequency distribution table where the data are grouped according to some
numerical or quantitative characteristics.

Table 3
Ungrouped Frequency Distribution for the
Weights of 50 Students in Prof Ed 6 Class
WEIGHT (in kg) FREQUENCY
49 2
50 3
51 5
52 7
53 7
54 0
55 0
56 0
57 0
58 12
59 0
60 7
61 0
62 4
63 2
64 1
Total 50
Table 4
Grouped Frequency Distribution for the
Weights of 50 Students in Prof Ed 6 Class
WEIGHT FREQUENCY
(in kg)
48 – 49 2
50 – 51 8
52 – 53 17
54 – 55 0
56 – 57 0
58 – 59 12
60 – 61 7
62 – 63 6
64 – 65 1
Total 50

65
Steps in Constructing Grouped FDT
1. Determine the range

Consider the following raw data on the first quiz in Prof Ed 6

37 24 37 41 38 28 35 32 41 31
51 48 33 29 34 46 39 33 32 39
41 49 28 29 45 27 43 49 39 27
43 54 39 49 57 22 38 32 49 50
44 45 33 42 39 40 48 35 43 47

R = 57 – 22 = 35

2. Determine the number of classes (class intervals)

Note: There's no definite rule in determining the number of class intervals for as long as the number can
provide the necessary information needed. However, the ideal number of class intervals is between 5 and
20 depending on the nature of data. What is important is that the class agrees on a standard method to use
for uniformity and consistency.
Remarks: There are other alternatives to determining the number of intervals.
k =√ n
where n is the number of observations and k is the number of intervals.
Example: n = 100, then k = √ 100 = 10
n = 72, then k = √ 72 = 8.49 ≈ 9
n = 50, then k = √ 50 = 7.07 ≈ 8

3. Determine the class size (ἱ), also known as class width

R
i=
k
where R is the range, and k is the number of the interval.
R = 35; n = 8, then ἱ = 35/8 = 4.375 ≈ 5

4. List the limits of each class interval. Preferably, lower limit of the lowest class interval is a multiple of
the class size of the class interval
Example: 20 – 24
20 is the lower limit, and 24 is the upper limit
Table 5
Frequency Distribution Table of the scores
in the First Quiz in Prof Ed 6
Class Intervals Frequency
20 – 24 2
25 – 29 6
30 – 34 8
35 – 39 11
40 – 44 10
45 – 49 9
50 – 54 3
55 - 59 1
N 50

A simple groupedfrequencydistribution table consists only of class interval and frequency. Table 4 and 5
are simple grouped FDT tables.

A complete grouped frequency distribution table has a class mark or midpoint (x), class boundaries
(c.b), relative frequency (rf), cumulative frequencies, (cf) and relative cumulative frequency.

Class mark – the midpoint of the class interval getting the average of the upper and lower limits
UL+¿
x=
2

66
Example: class mark of class interval 20 – 24
20+24
x= = 22
2
Class boundaries – these are the true limits of class intervals. Each class boundary equals the number
midway between the upper limit and the lower limit of the succeeding class interval.
Example: the class boundaries of 20 – 24 is 19.5 – 24.5

Relative Frequency – also called percentage frequency. It is the proportion of observations falling in a
class and is expressed in percentage. It is obtained by dividing the frequency of each class by N.
F
RF= x100%
N

Example: If the frequency of class interval of 20 – 24 is 1 and N = 50,

50
RF= x100% = 2%
1
Cumulative Frequency (cf)– accumulated frequency of the classes
a. Less than cf (<cf) – total number of observations whose values do not exceed the upper limit of the
class.
b. Greater than cf (>cf) – total number of observations whose values are not less than the lower limit
of the class.

Relative Cumulative Frequency

a. Less than RCF (<RCF)
b. Greater than RCF (>RCF)
Table 6
Complete Grouped Frequency Distribution Table of the scores
in the First Quiz in Prof Ed 6
C.I. F x c.b. rf <c >c <rc >rc
f f f f
20 – 2 22 19.5 – 4% 2 50 2 100
24 24.5
25 – 6 27 24.5 – 12% 8 48 16 98
29 29.5
30 – 8
34
35 – 11
39
40 – 10
44
45 – 9
49
50 – 3
54
55 - 59 1
N = 50

The contingency table

This is the table which shows the responses of subjects to one variable as a function of another
variable. One type of this kind of table is the row by column where the columns refer to the samples and the
rows refer to the choices or alternatives.

Table 7
The Contingency Table for the opinion of viewers on the New TV Program
Samples
Choices Men Women Childre Total
n
Like the Program 59 67 32 158
Indifferent 21 32 12 65
Do not like the 46 12 78 136
Program
Total 126 111 122 359

67
 Table 7 is a 3 x 3 table since it has 3 columns and 3 rows. The samples enumerated in columns are
men, women, and children while the choices or alternatives enumerated in rows are: like the program,
indifferent and do not like the program. Column and row totals are not included in the count.

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

The numerical data provided in a frequency distribution table or contingency table can be made
exciting and easier to understand when depicted in GRAPHICAL FORM. A graph is a pictorial
representation of a given data.

Common Types of Graph

1. Scatter Graph – a graph used to present measurements or values that are thoughts to be related.

2. Line Chart – a graphical presentation of data especially useful for showing trends over a period of
time.

3. Pie Chart – it is a circular graph that is useful in showing how a total quantity is distributed among a
grouped of categories. Each pieces of pie represent an amount on the total portion of the category.

4. Column and Bar Graph – like pie charts, column charts and bar charts are applicable only to
grouped data. It is used for DISCRETE grouped data of ordinal or nominal scale.

Other Type of Graphs

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 1. Frequency Histogram – a bar graph that presents the classes on horizontal axis and
thefrequencies of the classes where on the vertical axis. The vertical lines of the bars are on the
class boundaries, and the height of the bar corresponds to the class frequency.
2. Frequency Polygon – a line graph that is constructed by plotting the frequencies at the class marks
connecting the plotted points by means of straight lines and encloses the polygon by adding an
additional class at each end, for which the ends of the line are connected to the midpoints of the
additional classes at the horizontal axis.
3. Relative Frequency Histogram – it displays graph in which horizontal axis represetns the classes
and the vertical axis represents the relative frequencies.
4. Ogives – forms a graph of the cumulative frequency (cf) distribution
a. <ogive – the less than cf is plotted against the Upper true class boundary
b. >ogive – the greater than cf is plotted against the Lower true class boundary

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

(Descriptive Statistics)

Any single value that describe the "center" of the given data. It is often known as the average.

Numerical descriptive measures which indicate or locate the center of a distribution of a set of data.

SUMMATION NOTATION

Suppose that a variable X is a variable of interest and that n measurements are taken. The notation
X1, X2, …., Xnwill be used to represent the n observation.
The Greek letter “Σ” indicates the "summation of…" and you can write the sum of the observations
as
n

∑ X i=¿ X 1 + X 2+ …+ X n ¿The number 1 and n are called the lower and upper limits of summation,
i=1
respectively.

Example: Write out the following in full, that is, without summation signs:
5
1. ¿ ∑ xi =x1 + x 2 + x 3+ x 4 + x 5
i=1
4
2. ¿ ∑ xi y i=x 1 y 1 + x 2 y2 + x 3 y 3+ x 4 y 4
i=1

Rules on Summation
1) The summation notation is distributive over addition.
n n n

∑ x i + y i= ∑ x i + ∑ y i
i=1 i=1 i=1
2) If c is a constant, then
n n

∑ c x i=c ∑ x i
i=1 i=1
n
3) If c is a constant, then∑ c=nc
i=1

A. Expand of the given expression using the rule of summation.

4 4 4

∑ 2 x i+ 3=∑ 2 x i+∑ 3 rule1

i=1 i=1 i=1

4
¿ ∑ 2 xi + 4 ( 3 ) rule 3
i=1

4
¿ 2 ∑ xi + 4 ( 3 ) rule 2
i=1

¿ 2 ( x1 + x 2 + x 3+ x 4 ) +12

69
B. Write the following into summation notation with appropriate limits.
8
1. x5 + x 6 + x 7 + x 8=∑ x i
i=5

5
2. ( x 3−2 ) + ( x 4 −2 ) + x 5−2 ¿=∑ ( x ¿¿ i−2) ¿
i =3

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

(Descriptive Statistics)

Any single value that describe the "center" of the given data. It is often known as the average.

Numerical descriptive measures which indicate or locate the center of a distribution of a set of data.

1) Mean = TOTAL of items ÷ NUMBER of items

2) Median = MIDDLE value
3) Mode = MOST common value

PROPERTIES OF THE MEAN, MEDIAN, AND MODE

MEAN MEDIAN MODE

1. The sum of the deviations of
all measurements in a set from
the mean is 0.
2. It can be calculated for any set
of numerical data so it always
exist.
3. A set of numerical data has
one and only one mean
4. It lends itself to a higher
statistical treatment
5. It is the most reliable since it
takes into account every item in a
set of data
6. It is greatly affected by
outlier/extreme or deviant value
7. It is used only if the data are
interval or ratio, and when
normally distributed.
The score or class in a
distribution below which 50% of
the score fall and above which
50% lie.
2. Not affected by extreme or
deviant values
3.Appropriate to use when the
are outliers or extreme or deviant
values.
Use when the data are ordinal.
It exists in both quantitative and
qualitative data.
It is used when we want to fid the
value which occurs most often.
It is a quack approximation of the
average.
It is an inspection average.
It is the most unreliable among
the three measures of central
tendency because its value is
undefined in some observations.
It exists in both quantitative and
qualitative data.

Example 1: Find the mean, median and mode of these grades:

92, 97, 95, 94, 91, 92, 93, 96

1. First, rearrange them in ascending order: 91, 92, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97
For the Mean:
Total of items = 91 +92 +92+93+94+95+96+97 = 750
Divide by the number of items: 750 ÷ 8 = 93.75
The MEAN is 93.75.

70
2. MEDIAN = the middle value. In this example, where there are two middle values, 93 and 94, the mean of
the two values is computed:
93+94 = 187
187 ÷ 2 = 93.5
The MEDIAN is 93.5

3. MODE = most frequently occurring value, which is simply 92. (“The modal value is 92.”)

Example 2: Find the mean, median and mode of these values:

8, 7, 3, 5, 7, 9, 7, 8, 9, 9, 10
1. Arranging in order: 3, 5, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9,9, 10
For the MEAN:
Total items: 3 + 5 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 8 + 8 + 9 + 9 + 9 + 10 = 82
Divide by the number of items: 82 ÷ 11 = 7.45
The MEAN is 7.45

2. MEDIAN: Since there are 11 items, the middle value, with 5 items to its left and right, is 8.
The MEDIAN is 8.

3. MODE: The most frequently occurring values are 7 and 9. The data set is said to be bimodal.
(A data set with 3 modes is called trimodal; if more than three it is multimodal)

USING MICROSOFT EXCEL IN FINDING THE MEAN, MEDIAN, AND MODE

Example 1: Find the mean, median and mode of these values:
10, 6, 8, 9, 9, 6, 8, 10, 9

1. First type encode the values in a column.

2. Highlight and sort the values using the sort command in the task bar (encircled). Click “OK”.

71
3. Under “DATA” in the taskbar, look for “STATISTICS” then “DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS” in the drop down
menus.

4. Decide where to place the computed results. In the example, Column L Row 3 is selected. Press “OK”.

72
5. The MEAN, MEDIAN, and MODE will be displayed as well as the other descriptive statistics.

The MEAN is 8.33 while the MEDIAN and MODE are both 9.

Example 2: Find the mean, median and modal age of the following students attending a class in Livelihood
Training:
20, 17, 18, 60, 21, 20, 20, 22, 21, 21
Following the steps in Example 1, the results should be:

CAUTION: Microsoft Excel does not give all

the modes. It only gives the mode that comes
first in the list. By inspection, 20 and 21 are
the modes in the data set. Always do manual
inspection with regards to the mode.

MEASURES OF LOCATION
The percentile is a measure which divides the distribution into one hundred equal parts. The
quartile measure divides the distribution into four equal parts while the decile divides the distribution into
ten equal parts.

PERCENTILE: 1st percentile (P1), 2nd percentile (P2), 3rd percentile (P3)…….. 100th percentile (P100)
QUARTILE: 1st quartile (Q1), 2nd quartile (Q2), 3rd quartile (Q3), 4th quartile (Q4)
DECILE: 1st decile (D1), 2nd decile (D2), 3rd decile (D3), … 10th decile (D10)

If an item in a data set is located in the 99 th percentile, this means that 99% of the items lie below the given
item, while 1% is located above it.

73
The first quartile is where 25% of the distribution lies below and 75% lies above. It is the same with 25 th
percentile. The 2nd quartile where 50% of the data lies below and the other 50% lies above, is also the same
as the MEDIAN. The third quartile is where 75% is below and 25% is above the given item, which is the
same as the 75th percentile.

The 5th decile is also the same as the MEDIAN.

The 50th percentile is also the same as the MEDIAN.
Example 1: If Helen’s score in an exam is located in the 98 th percentile, does this mean that it is a passing
score?
Solution: No. It just indicates that the score is located where 2% of the test takers got a higher score while
98% got a score lower than Helen.
Example 2: Which score is higher? A score located in P75 or a score in the 3rd quartile?
Solution: Both scores have the same value.
Example 3: Is the score under the 2nd decile lower than 80% of the data set?
Solution: Yes. It is also called the 20th percentile.
Among the three measures, the quartile is the most commonly used, and is represented visually in a box-
and-whisker plot.

74
The five labels (min, Q1, MEDIAN, Q3 and max) in this box-and-whisker plot is computed in the Microsoft
Excel Program. If we use the 1st example on Measures of Central Tendency (excel), we know that:

The min (minimum score) is 6.

The Q1 is 8.
The MEDIAN (Q2) is 9.
The Q3 is 9.
The max (maximum score) is 10.

The range is computed by finding the difference between the min and the max. In this case, 10 – 6 = 4.

In Example 2,
..

The min (minimum score) is 17.

The Q1 is 20.
The MEDIAN (Q2) is 20.5.
The Q3 is 21.
The max (maximum score) is 60.

The range is 60 – 17 (max minus min) = 43.

The inter-quartile range (IQR) is where 50% of the data set is located. It is the difference between Q 3 and
Q1.
Example: What is the IQR in the following data set?
81 63 64 76 62 64 70 72 81 77
Solution: Arranged in ascending order:

75
The INTERQUARTILE RANGE is 13.

THE STANDARD DEVIATION AND THE VARIANCE

Standard deviation is simply a measure of how far from the mean the data is spread. It can be
visualized like a dartboard, where the center is the MEAN and the darts are the data in the set.

The greater the standard the deviation is, the greater the spread. The greater the spread, the more
inconsistent it gets.
The formula for finding the standard deviation is

∑ ( x−x́ )2 ,
s=
√ n−1
Where s = standard deviation
x = score

x́ = mean
n = number of items

The Greek letter ∑ (pronounced “sigma”) stands for “the sum of…”
2
So ∑ ( x− x́ ) part of the equation stands for “get the difference of each value and the mean, square each of
them, then add them all up.”

Dividing the result by the number of items minus 1 (n – 1) yields the variance (s2), then the square root is
extracted to give the standard deviation.

For demonstration, let us manually compute the standard deviation of the 2 previous examples.

Example 1: Find the variance and standard deviation of the following data:
10, 6, 8, 9, 9, 6, 8, 10, 9

1. First find the mean. 10+6+8+9+9+6+8+10+9 = 75

75 ÷ 9 = 8.33

76
2. Subtract each score from the mean. Square each difference. ( x−x́ )2

10 – 8.33 = 1.67 (1.67)2 = 2.78

6 – 8.33 = -2.33 (-2.33)2 = 5.43
8 – 8.33 = -0.33 (-0.33)2 = 0.11
9 – 8.33 = 0.67 (0.67)2 = 0.45
9 – 8.33 = 0.67 (0.67)2 = 0.45
6 – 8.33 = -2.33 (-2.33)2 = 5.43
8 – 8.33 = -0.33 (-0.33)2 = 0.11
9 – 8.33 = 0.67 (0.67)2 = 0.45
10 – 8.33 = 1.67 (1.67)2 = 2.78

∑ ( x− x́ )2 means add all ( x−x́ )2 results.

2.78 + 5.43 + 0.11 + 0.45 + 0.45 + 5.43 + 0.11 + 0.45 + 2.78 = 18

∑ ( x −x́ )2
Divide the sum by n – 1: 9 – 1 = 8
( ¿ part of the formula :
n−1 )
18 ÷ 8 = 2.25
The VARIANCE is 2.25

∑ ( x−x́ )2
(
To get the standard deviation, extract the root of the variance. ¿ the formula : s=
√ n−1 )
√ 2.25=1.5
The STANDARD DEVIATION is 1.5.

Example 2: Find the variance and standard deviation of the following data:
20, 17, 18, 60, 21, 20, 20, 22, 21, 21

1. Find the MEAN:

20 +17 + 18 + 60 + 21 + 20 + 20 + 22 + 21 + 21 = 240
240 ÷ 10 = 24

77
2. Compute each ( x−x́ )2.

20 – 24 = -4 (-4)2 = 16
17 – 24 = -7 (-7)2 = 49
18 – 24 = -6 (-6)2 = 36
60 – 24 = 36 (36)2 = 1296
21 – 24 = -3 (-4)2 = 9
20 – 24 = -4 (-4)2 = 16
20 – 24 = -4 (-4)2 = 16
22 – 24 = -2 (-2)2 = 4
21 – 24 = -3 (-4)2 = 9
21 – 24 = -3 (-4)2 = 9

2
3. Sum up all ( x−x́ )2. In symbols this is ∑ ( x− x́ ) .

16+49+36+1296+9+16+16+4+9+9=1460

∑ ( x −x́ )2
4. Divide by n – 1. That is, 10 – 1 = 9
( ¿ part of the formula :
n−1 )
1460 ÷ 9 = 162.22
The VARIANCE is 162.22

∑ ( x −x́ )2
5. Extract the square root of the variance.
√ n−1

√ 162.22=12.74

The STANDARD DEVIATION is 12.74

The remaining Descriptive Statistics in the Excel computation – Kurtosis and Skewness, refers to the
overall shape of the distribution relative to the normal distribution (the bell curve). Kurtosis is the degree
of peakness relative to a normal distribution while Skewness is the degree of asymmetry (departure from
symmetry).

STANDARD SCORE

The standard score is the measures of standard deviations in relation to the mean. It is computed as

78
 x−μ
Z=
σ

Where Z = standard score

x = raw score
μ= population mean
σ = population standard deviation

And the sample counterpart is

x−x́
Z=
s

Where Z = standard score

x = raw score
x́ = sample mean
s= sample standard deviation

The standard score can be used to compare values from the series of data mainly when the means
and the standard deviations are different.

Examples:

Dante obtained a grade of 70 in English and 93 in PE. The mean grade in English is 65, and the
standard deviation is 4, whereas,in PE, the mean grade is 80 having a standard deviation of 15, in which
subject did Dante perform better?

Solution:
93−80 70−65
ZPE = = 0.87 ; Zenglish = = 1.25
15 4

Dante performed better in English.

A normal probability is a distribution that is continuous in which both symmetrical and mesokurtic.
The curve representing the normal probability distribution is often described as being "bell-shaped". This
is sometimes called "Gaussian Distribution" or the "Normal Curve".

Properties of Normal Curve

1. The mean = median = mode.

2. It is symmetrical about the mean.
3. The tails or ends are asymptotic relative to the horizontal axis.
4. The total area under a normal curve is 1.0 or 100%.
5. The normal curve area maybe subdivided into standard deviations, at least 3 to the left and 3 to the
right.

EMPIRICAL RULE (OR 68–95–99.7 RULE)

79
 For data with a normal distribution, the standard deviation has the following characteristics.
1. About 68% of the data are within one standard deviation of the mean.
2. About 95% of the data are within two standard deviations of the mean.
3. About 99.7% of the data are within three standard deviations of the mean.

Example:
The mean salary in Cabanatuan is ₱15,000, with a standard deviation of ₱200. Estimate the percent
employees that have a salary between ₱13,000 and ₱17,000.

Solution:
Assuming that the distribution is in bell-shaped. So, we can use the empirical rule. Given that the mean is
₱15,000, x́−s = ₱13,000 is equivalent to one standard deviation which has 34% and x́ +s = ₱13,000 is
equivalent to one standard deviation which also has 34%. Therefore, there are 64% of employees in
Cabanatuan that takes a salary between ₱13,000 and ₱17,000.

Areas under the Normal Curve

One must first learn how to find areas under the normal curve before solving certain types of
statistical problems. The first step in finding areas under the normal curve is to convert the normal curve of
any given variable into a standardizednormal curve. The formula to be used is:

x́−x
z=
s
where z = standard score
x́ = mean
x = given value of the variable
s = standard deviation

Some considerations and reminders when solving statistical problems using the areas under the
normal curve table:
1. The total area under a normal curve is 1 or 100%.
2. Since the normal curve is symmetrical about the mean; then half the normal curve has an area of
0.5 or 50%.
3. The table you will use gives only the area to the right of the mean.
4. The given area in the table is the area from z = 0 to ± z .
5. The area is always positive,but z can be positive or negative.

Example:
(a) Determine the area from z = 0 to z = 1.15
P(z ≤ 1.15¿

Solution:
Step 1: Shade the required region.
Step 2: Find the area using the table.

The area on the normal curve from z=0 to z=1.15 is 0.3749.

(b) Find P(−1.0 ≤ z ≤1.5 ¿

Solution:
Step 1: Shade the required region.
Step 2: Find the area using the table.

The area on the normal curve from -1 to 1.5 is 0.7745.

(c) Find the z-probabilities of the following given the x-values with mean of 30 and standard deviation of 8.

1. area from 27 to 35

80
 27−30
z= =−0.375
8
35−30
z= =0.625
8

P(27≤ x ≤ 35 ¿
= P(−0.375 ≤ z ≤ 0.625)
= 0.3802 or 38.02%

2. area greater than 32

32−30
z= =0.25
8

P( x ≥ 32)
= P (z ≥ 0.25)
= 0.4013 or 40.13%

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Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 13
Directions: Identify the data set’s level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio).
Level of Measurement
1. hair color of women _________________

2. numbers on jersey shirts _________________

3. ages of students in a statistics class _________________

4. temperatures in a refrigerator _________________

5. number of mg of sugar in cookies _________________

6. number of pages in a book _________________

7. marriage status _________________

8. Social Security System numbers _________________

9. ratings of a movie _________________

10. plate numbers _________________

11. annual salaries for all teachers _________________

12. list of zip codes _________________

13. height of students _________________

14. color of the eyes _________________

15. student number _________________

16. professional academic rank _________________

17. source of income _________________

18. Tax Identification Number _________________

19. birth order of children in the family _________________

20. Length of TV commercials _________________

Assessing Learning

82
Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 14
Directions: Determine the dependent variable, independent variable, levels and the level of measurement.

1. Students watched "The Notebook" movie either alone or with others and then rated how they found the
movie romantic.
Independent variable: __________________________________
Dependent variable: ____________________________________
Level of Measurement of DV: ____________________________

2. Mary tries to enhance her students' performance by making an experiment of giving monetary incentives
to the students. To test this experiment, she gives the students a math test. Before giving the test, she told
to the half of the students that they would receive ₱1.00 for every correct answer and the other half of the
students was not given a monetary incentive. Every number of correct answers was recorded for each
student.
Independent variable: __________________________________
Dependent variable: ____________________________________
Level of Measurement of DV: ____________________________

3. A company conducted a stress management training program. They determine the number of sick days
taken by their workers who attended the stress management training and not for two subsequent months.
Independent variable: __________________________________
Dependent variable: ____________________________________
Level of Measurement of DV: ____________________________

4. Two groups of students at a University were splitted, and each received a different text for a philosophy
course. One group received a traditional textbook, while the other group received an interactive digital
textbook. At the end of the course, the final grades between the two groups of students were compared.
Independent variable: __________________________________
Dependent variable: ____________________________________
Level of Measurement of DV: ____________________________

5. A teacher wants to determine the best method of learning shapes: using a coloring book for shapes or
singing a rhyming song. Students are scored on a shapes test after using their method for two weeks.
Independent variable: __________________________________
Dependent variable: ____________________________________
Level of Measurement of DV: ____________________________

Assessing Learning

83
Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 15
Directions: Present the given data as indicated.

1.The enrolment data for Education courses, A.Y. 2015 - 2019 are the following:

BSE: 345 (2015), 167 (2016), 233 (2017), 482 (2018), 55 (2019)
BEED: 254 (2015), 136 (2016), 209 (2017), 198 (2018), 201 (2019)
BSIE: 57 (2015), 62 (2016), 45 (2017), 48 (2018), 38 (2019)

Present the data using textual form.

2. A survey wastaken at a restaurant that 20 guests preferred the appetizer. Construct bar graph.
Mojo Onion Rings Bread Sticks Bread Sticks Mojo Onion Rings Mojo Mojo
Onion Rings Bread Sticks Onion Rings Mojo Mojo Mojo Onion Rings Bread Sticks Onion Rings
Onion Rings Bread Sticks Mojo

Construct a categorical distribution.

3.Given below is the Midterm Grades of students in Prof Ed 6. Construct a grouped frequency distribution
table with the data arranged from lowest to highest. Then make a line graph.

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2.25 3.5 1.0 3.5 4.0 1.25 1.25 1.5 1.25
2.5 2.25 1.5 4.0 2.5 2.75 1.5 4.0 3.0
2.75 2.5 2.25 3.5 3.0 2.0 1.0 3.5 3.5
2.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 2.5 1.5 1.5 3.0 3.5
3.0 1.5 1.0 2.75 3.0 1.5 3.5 3.0 3.0
4.0 3.0 1.75 2.0 3.0 2.5 3.0 2.75 4.0
1.75 2.0 1.0 1.25 1.5 2.5 2.25 1.75 1.25
1.25 1.75 3.0 1.0 1.75 1.0 2.25 1.5 1.25

Assessing Learning

85
Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 16
A. Write each of the following without summation signs:
5
1 ¿ ∑ xi __________________________________
i=1

3
2 ¿ ∑ ( x ¿¿ i−1)2 ¿ __________________________________
i=1

4
3 ¿ ∑ x i+ 2 __________________________________
i=2

6
4 ¿ ∑ xi3 __________________________________
i=3

5 3
5 ¿ ∑ x i+ ∑ y i−4 ______________________________
i=2 i=2

B. Write the following expressions into summation notation with appropriate limits.

1. (a 1−b2) + (a 2−b3) + (a 3−b 4) + (a 4−b 5)

2. ( X 2 +Y 2 ¿+¿ ( X 3 +Y 3 ¿+( X 4 + Y 4 )

3. ( X 6 + 4 ) + ( X 7 + 4 ) + ( X 8+ 4 ) + ( X 9+ 4 ) + ( X 10 + 4)

4. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ….. + n

5. 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + …. + n2

C. Evaluate the following:

1. Given: X 1 =−3 X 2 =−2 X 3 =−1

X 4=1 X 5 =2 X 6 =3
5
a ¿ ∑ xi __________________________________
i=1

3
b ¿ ∑ ( x¿¿ i−1)2 ¿ __________________________________
i=1

4
c ¿ ∑ xi +3 __________________________________
i=2

6
d ¿ ∑ x i2 __________________________________
i=3

5 3
e ¿ ∑ x i + ∑ X i−4 _________________________
i=2 i=2

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Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 17

Directions:Find the mean, median, and mode. If any of the measures cannot be is not applicable, explain
why.

1. The number of concert tickets purchased online for the last 7 purchases
4 2 5 8 6 6 4

2. The weight of a sample of 10 female employees in pounds

154 240 171 188 235 203 184 173 181 275

3. The responses of a sample of 1,127 young adults who were asked what surprised them the most after
living on their own
(Adapted from Charles Schwab)
Amount of the first salary: 73
Trying to find a job: 210
Number of decisions: 163 Money needed: 209
Paying bills: 328
Trying to save: 351
Difficulty in breaking away from parents: 85

87
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 18
Directions:Compute the mean, median, and mode of the data set given below.

Frequency Distribution of Scores in Statistics

Scores Frequency ( f i ¿
90 – 100 12
80 – 89 32
70 – 79 23
60 – 69 14
50 – 59 10
40 – 49 2
30 – 39 4
20 – 29 1
10 – 19 1
0–9 1
Total 100

Which measure best interprets the scores in Statistics?

88
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 19
1. A Psychologist obtained the IQ scores of 10 students. The IQ scores are as follow
100 95 70 85 100 110 95 85 140 132
Find P65 and Q3, Interpret the values.

2. Find the 3rd quartile and the 90th percentile of the average weight of 50 COED students of NEUST.
Interpret the results.
Weight(in lbs) # of students
118-126 3
127-135 7
136-144 11
145-153 14
154-162 7
163-171 5
172-180 3
TOTAL 50

89
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 20
Directions: Find the range, standard variation and variance of the following data sets, then interpret the
absolute dispersion of each data set.

I. Data set A : 16, 15, 7, 5, 14, 10

Data set B : 110,125, 85, 62, 100, 98

II. Weight of 50 Male COED Students of NEUST

Weight(in lbs) # of students
118-126 3
127-135 7
136-144 11
145-153 14
154-162 7
163-171 5
172-180 3
TOTAL 50
Assessing Learning

Name: _________________________________________________________________

Section: ____________________________ Date: ___________________________

Activity 21
A. Assuming that the distribution of in bell-shaped, use the empirical rule to estimate the following:

90
1. The mean weight of 100 college students is 54kg, with a standard deviation of 3.
a) Between what two values do about 95% of the data lie?

b) Estimate the number of students who has a weight between 48 kg and 57 kg.

c) If 25 additional students were sampled, about how many students has a weight between 51 kg and 57
kg?
B. 1. Determine the z-scores of the following when the mean is equal to 40 and a standard deviation of 6:
a) 30

b) 40

c) 48

2. Missy scored 88 on her History test which had a mean of 90 with a standard deviation of 3. She scored 84
on her English test which had a mean of 80 with a standard deviation of 2. Which test did she score better?

3. If a Prof Ed 6 test scores were normally distributed with a mean of 83 with a standard deviation of 5, find
the probability that a randomly selected student scored

a) 75 or less.

b) above a 93.

c) between 77 and 84.

91
C. Shade the required area, and find the area.
P (z ≥0.25)

P(2.11≤z)

P(0≤z≤-1.6)

P(-0.29≤z≤ 2.36)

D. Answer the following problem:

The average grade in the college entrance exam in NEUST is 88 with standard deviation of 13. There are
2,800 examinees for the year 2019. Determine the number of students
a. whose average is 80.

b. whose average is equal to or between 79 and 82.

92
 c. whose average is 85 and above.

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Airasian, P. (1997). Classroom Assessment 3rd ed. McGraw Hills Companies, Inc.
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Clark, D.R. (2004). Concepts of leadership. Retrieved
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