Human Factors – Part 1

Objective

• To raise awareness of human error and human limitations.

• To reduce the effect of these errors and limitations.
What You Will Learn

• An awareness of the human aspect of aircraft accidents and incidents.

• An awareness of how your performance can affect the entire system.
Sources

• Human Factors for Aviation: Basic Handbook

• From The Ground Up (Airmanship)

• Aeronautical Information Manual, Airmanship (AIR) Section

• Pilot’s Guide to Medical Human Factors

Human Factors Components

Part #1:

• The Atmosphere
• Hypoxia and Hyperventilation
• Gas Expansion Effects
• Decompression Sickness
• Vision and Visual Scanning
• Hearing, Noise, and Vibration
• Orientation and Disorientation
• Positive and Negative G’s
• Fatigue and Sleep
Pilot Error

Pilot Error is an action or decision of the pilot that, if not caught and corrected,
could contribute to the occurrence of an accident or incident. Inaction and
indecision are included in the definition.
• The pilot is found to be a broad cause or factor in what percentage of all
accidents?
• 84% - and 91% of all fatal accidents!
Accident Rates

• The good news:

• We’re getting better.
• Almost every year since WWII, accident and fatal accident rates have fallen.
• The bad news:
• About 13 accidents and 2 fatal accidents per 100 000 hours flown in Canada.
• The pilot is often a contributing cause.
Aviation Accidents
When do accidents occur?

• Percentage of time spent per phase of flight:

16% take-off and climb
60% cruise
24% descent, approach, and landing
• Percentage of accidents per phase of flight:
22% take-off and climb
17% cruise
61% descent/landing
The Usual Suspects

• The pilot most likely to have an accident:

Age?
35 to 39 years
Total Time?
Between 100 and 500 hours
What kind of flight?
On a personal flight in VMC
Why is this the case?
Confidence vs. experience
The Atmosphere

Composition:
• From Sea Level to approx. 300,000 ft. the composition of the atmosphere remains
relatively constant.
• It is composed of approximately:
• 78% nitrogen
• 21% oxygen
• 1% other gases
The Atmosphere

Atmospheric Pressure:
• Pressure is 29.92” Hg at Sea Level
• It is 1/2 of this at 18,000’ (14.96” Hg)
• It is 1/4 of this at 34,000’ (7.48” Hg)
• It is 1/10 of this at 54,000’ (2.992” Hg)
The Atmosphere

Decreased pressure on the body has two significant effects:

• It causes a fall in the pressure gradient at which oxygen is delivered to the lungs
Result = Hypoxia

• It causes an expansion of the body gases

Result = Dysbarisms and decompression sickness
The Atmosphere

D ecrease o f A tm o sp h eric P ressu re

Decrease of P artial Pressure Derease of Total P ressure

Trapped G as E volved G as
Hypoxia

Dysbarism s & Decom pression

Abdom inal P ain S ickness
Hypoxia and Hyperventilation

Respiration:
• Air we breathe is cleaned and humidified in the
nose and throat and transferred by the airways
to the lungs
• Oxygen transfer takes place in the lungs
through the thin walled membranes called
alveoli
• Since oxygen pressure is higher in the alveoli
than in the blood, oxygen easily passes through
the membrane walls and into the blood
Hypoxia and Hyperventilation

Partial Pressures:
• Since air is composed of different gases, the partial pressure exerted by any one
gas (oxygen) in the mixture will be equal to its percentage of the mixture
• Therefore, by adding all the partial pressures for all the gases, we get the total
pressure exerted by the gaseous mixture
Hypoxia and Hyperventilation

Oxygen Transfer:
• At Sea Level, the pressure difference between the atmospheric pressure of the
oxygen component of air is much higher than the pressure of oxygen in the blood
• Thus oxygen transfers easily into the bloodstream
• At 10,000 ft, the partial pressure of oxygen in the air is only ½ that of sea level,
thus, oxygen transfer is not as effective
Hypoxia

Hypoxia:
• Hypoxia occurs when oxidation of the body’s tissues is inadequate

Types of Hypoxia:
• Hypoxic Hypoxia
• Anaemic Hypoxia
• Stagnant Hypoxia
• Histotoxic Hypoxia
Hypoxia

• Hypoxic Hypoxia:
• Caused by insufficient pressure, resulting in insufficient oxygen transfer and low blood
oxygen levels
• This is the normal effect of altitude
• It is avoided by the use of pressurization or on-board oxygen systems
• It is insidious; pilots often recognize the symptoms too late
• A common cause is failure of the pressurization system
• Extended flight is limited to 10,000’ without pressurization or supplemental oxygen
• Flight permitted between 10,000’ and 13,000’ for a maximum of 30 minutes without oxygen
Hypoxia

• Anaemic Hypoxia:
• Caused by too few blood cells or too little haemoglobin to carry the oxygen
• Usual cause is poor diets or loss of blood due to bowel ulcers or heavy menstrual flows
• Haemoglobin could be adequate, however saturated with other substances such as carbon
monoxide
• Haemoglobin absorbs carbon monoxide 210 times more readily than oxygen
• Exhaust fumes from faulty exhaust a common cause
• Smokers have 5-8% of haemoglobin blocked by CO2
• Heavy smokers, when at sea level can be at a physiological altitude of 5,000’ and can become
hypoxic well below 10,000’
Hypoxia

• Stagnant Hypoxia:
• Caused by reduced blood supply to the tissues
• Most common cause is high G-loads
• Blood drains to the feet, leaving the brain without an adequate supply
Hypoxia

• Histotoxic Hypoxia:
• Caused by interference from enzymes that require the oxygen to produce energy
• It is a type of chemical poisoning
• Certain drugs or medicine can cause it
• Can be caused by high blood alcohol levels
Effect of Altitude

Altitude Time of Useful

Consciousness
10,000 ft n/a
20,000 ft 5-12 minutes
30,000 ft 45-75 seconds
40,000 ft 15-30 seconds
45,000 ft and above 12-15 seconds
Hypoxia - symptoms

• Onset of symptoms is slow and hard

to notice (insidious)
• Individuals may experience some
symptoms more than others
Hypoxia

• Night Vision:
• The retina of the eye is very sensitive to blood oxygen levels
• At 5,000’, night vision is marginally reduced
• By 8,000’, it is reduced by 25%
• If oxygen is available, it is recommended that it be used for any night flying above 5000’
Prevention of Hypoxia

• Avoid flying above 10000’ without O2.

• To maximize night vision, avoid flying above 5000’ at night without O 2.
• Higher altitude flying will require a pressurized cabin.
• A airliner flying at 45000’ will maintain a cabin pressure altitude of approx. 8000’.
• Accomplished by taking high pressure air from the compressor of a turbine engine.

• https://youtu.be/UN3W4d-5RPo
Hyperventilation

• Hyperventilation:
• it is breathing more rapidly than necessary
• it may be obvious or barely noticeable
• it is common to over-breathe while under stress, such as flying in marginal
weather
• it can be exaggerated by anxiety and panic
• any pilot may hyperventilate in strange or difficult situations.
Causes of Hyperventilation

• Over breathing
• Air intake is increased, CO2 exhaust is increased
• Ratio of O2 and CO2 changing causes the body’s acid-base balance to change
• The body reduces oxygen pressure & blood flow at the brain
• Ultimately results in a type of BRAIN HYPOXIA
Effects of Hyperventilation

• Warning signs include:

• Dizziness
• Feeling of “pins and needles” on hands and feet
• Continued hyperventilation leads to:
• Muscular spasms
• unconsciousness
Hypoxia and Hyperventilation

Treatment of Hypoxia and Hyperventilation:

• Hypoxia can be confused with hyperventilation
• Below 8,000 ft
• Hypoxia unlikely
• slow breathing rate to 12 times/min

• Above 8,000 ft
• take 3-4 deep breaths of oxygen if it is available
• if symptoms persist, problem is hyperventilation and should be treated as such
• otherwise, immediately descend below 10,000 ft if oxygen is not available
Gas Expansion Effects

The Middle Ear:

• The Eustachian tube vents the inner ear drum so that pressure inside the drum
and outside the drum remain constant
• If this tube is plugged or blocked, the ear drum will not vent, and could cause ear
drum to rupture
• The valve flaps out of the inner ear, so most problems normally occur during a
descent when the outside pressure increases
• If you experience ear pain on descent, climb back up to your initial altitude, and
descend slowly, clearing ears every few hundred feet (Valsalva technique).
Valsalva Maneuver

• Steps of the Valsalva maneuver are:

• Pinch your nose closed.
• Close your mouth.
• Forcefully exhale.
• Bear down, similar to having a bowel movement.
• Hold this for 10 to 15 seconds.
Gas Expansion Effects

The Sinuses:
• These are air pockets above the eyes, behind the nose, and in each cheek
• They have drainage tubes that are smaller than the Eustachian tubes, and can
become clogged due to colds or hay fever
• Severe pain may be felt on descent if these tubes are blocked, disallowing the
sinuses to equalize to atmospheric pressure

• If pain is felt, climb to original altitude and descent more slowly

Gas Expansion Effects

The Teeth:

• If a dental cavity has trapped air beneath a loose filling, this may cause severe
pain due to the air expanding as you climb

• Trapped air in a dental abscesses may also cause pain

• If pain is felt on the ascent, return to a lower altitude and let your dentist know
A.S.A.P.
Gas Expansion Effects

The Bowels:
• Certain amounts of gas are always present in the bowels
• During a climb, the trapped gas will expand due to the decrease in atmospheric
pressure
• This expanding gas is usually passed as flatulence, causing little problem except
embarrassment
• If air gets trapped in the bowels, it can cause severe discomfort
• Pilots should try to avoid foods that they know cause personal problems with gas
production
Decompression Sickness

What is decompression sickness?

• It is caused by the release of nitrogen in the form of gas bubbles from the tissues
as pressure decreases
• It normally accumulates around the joints, and can cause a form of arthritis
• Under normal circumstances, symptoms do not appear below 20,000’
• The different types of symptoms are:
• Creeps
• Cramps
• Chokes
• Collapse
• These are known as the four C’s
Decompression Sickness

The Creeps:

• This is an itchy sensation (like insects crawling) caused by tiny gas bubbles under
the skin
• It is not a serious issue by itself, however it could be an early warning of more
serious effects
Decompression Sickness

The Cramps:
• pains in joints due to air bubbles interfering with blood flow

• These are known as the “Classic Bends”

• Pain is dull and may become severe

• Exercise will only make it worse

• Symptoms may be relieved by descending to a lower altitude

Decompression Sickness

The Chokes:
• It is a feeling of having difficulty breathing and pain behind the breast-bone

• This occurs when bubbles get into the lung circulation

• The sufferer will look ill, and may appear to be having a heart attack

• An immediate descent to a lower altitude must be made

Decompression Sickness

Collapse:
• This is the final symptom and occurs when larger bubbles interfere with the blood
supply to the brain

• This is fairly uncommon, as with the Chokes

• Pilots are more likely to get bubbles in the brain, while divers are more common to
get them in the spinal cord

• Anyone experiencing this symptom should see a doctor immediately

Decompression Sickness

Scuba Diving and Flying:

• Every 10m depth, pressure increases one atmosphere and pressurized air
saturates tissues with nitrogen
• Nitrogen bubbles may form above 8000’ ASL
• After non-decompression dives, don’t fly for 12 hours if flying below 8000’ ASL
• For compression dives, don’t fly for 24 hours
• For all flights above 8000’ ASL, must wait 24 hours.
Vision

How the eye sees:

• Cornea resolves the image
• Lens focuses the image to the center
of the retina at the back of the eye
• Rich in photo sensor cells called
cones
• Color sensitive, responsible for sharp
vision in good light
• Their number decrease progressively
from the center
Vision

• Peripheral area covered in cells called

rods
• Give less focused images and are not
color sensitive.
• Responsive to very low illumination
• Responsible for peripheral vision and
night vision
• Retina is connected to over a million
nerve cells
• Cell fibers meet to become the optic
nerve
• Optic nerve runs to the visual area of the
brain
Vision, Perception, Reaction

• The most perfect eye will not detect other aircraft unless the pilot is alert.
• Identifying a target requires:
• Picking it up
• Locking on
• Recognition
• A reaction time of several seconds is then needed to turn the info into action.
• Large a/c are barely visible at 11km away head-on.
• Little time is available for avoiding a head-on collision.
Scanning Techniques

• Pilot must scan a large area in a regular way without missing small objects.
• Moving objects are easier to see
• Aircraft on a collision course seem to be stationary and are not detected until the last
few seconds
• Be aware of your aircraft’s blind spots
• A dirty windscreen interferes with good vision
• Sector Scan
• Divide sky into 30° segments, slowly focus on each.
• Remember: scan 10° above AND below horizon
• Use peripheral vision to detect movement
• Use central vision to lock-on and recognize.
Empty Field Myopia

• Occurs when field of vision is empty

• At high altitude or at night
• The focus of the eye drifts in to a distance of about 2 to 5 meters
• The pilot must constantly focus the eye to infinity to maintain a good lookout
• Look at a distant object such as:
• A cloud
• A ground feature
Night Vision

• At night:
• Central (cone) vision is very light dependent.
• We use the rods in the periphery of the retina to see.
• It is necessary to look 10°-15° to one side of an object to see it most clearly.
• Dark Adaptation:
• Takes approximately 30 minutes
• Can be impaired by very brief exposure to bright light
• Retina is extremely sensitive to hypoxia (smokers?)
DERP

• Design Eye Reference Point

• “Position of the pilot's eyes for the best view of instruments and outside the cockpit.”
• Not in the POH of most light aircraft
• You should be able to see the ground 40’ in front of the a/c when parked
• If not, raise your seating position
Hearing, Noise, and Vibration

• The problems with noise/vibration:

• Noise increases task errors, but does not increase work rate.
• Noise and vibration can be stressful and distracting.
• Prolonged noise/vibration is a significant cause of fatigue and disorientation.
• Aside from hearing damage, noise can cause irritation and frustration.
• Vibration (turbulence) is fatiguing due to the muscular effort of resisting body movement
• Use ear protection, avoid prolonged flights in turbulence
Orientation and Disorientation

• We rely on three systems for most of our orientation:

• Kinesthetic sensors (muscle – bone – joint)
• Vision (eyes)
• Vestibular organs (inner ear)
• When any of these systems give us false information, when can become disoriented.
• Disagreement of these senses is a main reason for motion sickness
Kinesthetic Illusions

• “Flying by the seat of the pants”.

• Describes the subconscious orientation sense we use in flight.
• When peripheral vision is limited (IMC), this sense can be dangerously unreliable.
• Experience teaches us that gravity pulls us down.
• In a coordinated turn, what pulls us down?
• When kinesthetic sensations and the instruments disagree, the instruments are right!
• Much instrument experience is required to learn to ignore this sometimes disorientating
sense.
Visual Illusions

• White-out and Black Holes

• False Horizons
• Vectional Illusions
• Autokinesis
• Illusions During Approach

• Visual illusions are often a result of a pilot’s expectancy.

• based on previous experience or preconception
White-out and Black Holes

• Lack of contrast
• Makes depth perception practically impossible
• Examples:
• Fresh snow with white sky
• Night operations approaching into dark, featureless areas
• Float planes landing on glassy water
• Expecting these illusions, warn yourself against them, and keep a good visual and
instrument scan.
False Horizons

• Haze layers
• Cloud tops
• When only a few lights on the ground, ground lights and stars may be confused

• Be aware of illusions and cross-check your instruments.

Vectional Illusions

• Illusions of false movement

• Ex. car beside you creeping forward at a stoplight.
• Ex. going to an IMAX movie.
• Helicopter hovering over moving water
• Airplane cruising at low altitude
Autokinesis

• A small fixed light viewed steadily at night appears to move!

• Actually caused by the eyes losing fixation, drifting away and then jumping back to the
target.
• Pilots have done collision avoidance maneuvers away from stationary lights, believing
they are moving aircraft.
• Feeling can be overcome by looking away from the light and then back again.
• Visual illusions demonstration
Runway Width

A runway narrower than you are used to

using makes you believe you are higher
than normal A wider runway makes you appear lower
Runway Slope

Runways that slope down and away Runways that slope up make you appear
make you appear to be lower than normal to be high
Sloping Ground under the Approach Path

Approach over up-sloping land makes Approach over down- sloping land
you appear too low makes you appear too high
Vestibular Illusions

• The most complex and dangerous illusions

• Otoliths respond to linear acceleration
• Semi-circular canals respond to pitch, roll, and yaw of the body
• Work similar to swirling a glass of water
• Accurate on the ground, but can provide the brain with
incorrect info during flight
• False sensations are usually corrected by visual cues
• When a/c is stable and then accelerates, illusions are apparent
• What if there are insufficient visual cues to correct this?
Linear Accelerations

• Information provided by otoliths

• Aircraft acceleration (pitch up illusion)
• Pilot senses head being tilted backwards and believes aircraft is pitching up
• Tendency is to pitch the nose down on take-off (especially at night and in IMC)
• TSB: “…the aircraft struck the ground at a steep angle on the runway heading.”
• Aircraft deceleration (pitch down illusion)
• Tendency to pitch the nose up (stall)
• Can occur on transition to approach
• https://youtu.be/S1LA34BYMNo
Angular Accelerations

• Information provided by semi-circular canals

• Can cause opposite turning illusion after pilot rolls out of a turn
• Graveyard Spiral
• A spin or spiral recovery in IMC could lead to a second in the opposite direction
• Coriolis Effect
• Caused by inappropriate head movements (can create a violent sensation of tumbling)
• Turning the head sharply (particularly against the turn) is extremely hazardous
• The Leans (pilot feels banked attitude when straight and level)
• https://youtu.be/5ZG17H8yizI
Positive and Negative G’s

• G: rate of change of velocity compared to the force of gravity

• Acceleration on the body results in displacement of blood and tissues in the opposite direction due to inertia
• Good diet, nutrition, and physical fitness increase G tolerance
• Gx is longitudinal G and is easily overcome, but may cause disorientation
• Gy is lateral G and not much of an issue to pilots
• Gz is vertical/normal G and blood rushes to or away from the head
Positive G

• Experienced during a steep turn, an inside loop, or a pull-out

• Positive “Gs” happen when the pilot pulls back on the control stick or control
yoke. The “G” forces push him or her into the seat.
• Drains blood away from the head, towards the feet
• +2G: Grey-out (vision becomes dim)
• +4G: Black-out (temporary loss of vision)
• Over +6G: pilot loses consciousness due to brain hypoxia
• https://youtu.be/aR-fA6OG21w
Negative G

• Experienced in a push-over and an outside loop

• Negative “G” forces happen when the pilot pushes forward on the control stick or
control yoke hard enough that they will actually be pulled out of the their seat if not
strapped in
• Poorly tolerated by the pilot
• Acceleration is from the foot to the head creating high blood pressure in the eyes
• “red-out” (a red haze in vision) is experienced
• -5G may cause the rupture of small blood vessels in the eyes
• Prolonged negative G will cause brain damage

• https://youtu.be/M1kpL0YuwNw