Disciplines and Ideas in

the Social Sciences

Key Concepts and Approaches in Social Sciences
Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson you should be able to:

Knowledge: Identify the strengths and weaknesses

of each approach.

Skills: Compare and contrast the three approaches.

Attitude: Assess personal and social experiences

using relevant approaches in social sciences
 PSYCHOANALYSIS

A school of thought developed by

Sigmund Freud, Psychoanalysis refers to a theory
of the mind and its direct connection to
personality and behavior. The basic premise of
Psychoanalysis is that the human mind has an
unconscious state. There are thoughts, memories,
emotions and feelings that are hidden from a
person’s conscious mind, which without him/her
knowing, affects the way he or she thinks, feels
and acts.
Below are drives and desires in a person’s unconscious mind that
influence his or her view of the world and how he or she decides
to go about his or her daily life.

Psychoanalytic Practice is the method by which the troubling

unconscious material, such as memories and desires, is brought to
the level of the conscious mind so that the individual could better
understand himself or herself better.

Specifically, Freud developed a personality theory called

Psychosexual Development of Personality, which posits that at
different stages of growth, the individual derives pleasure from
the different parts of the body- thus the term Psychosexual,
relating to pleasure and the human body.
What are the Three Levels of Awareness?
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Personality theory provides three
levels of awareness: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

The conscious level of the mind is the accessible information,

memories and thoughts that an individual has.

The preconscious is the level where the accessible and

retrievable information are situated, but are not currently in the
conscious level.

The unconscious is the inaccessible memories, thoughts,

emotions, and feelings that are most populated by childhood
events
Key Concepts of Psychoanalysis

ID, EGO, SUPEREGO

The id, ego and superego are the parts that are constitutive
of personality that occupy these three levels of the mind.
The first part to develop is the ID, which occupies the
unconscious level. Because the id is the biological aspect
(instincts and basic urges) of personality, it only seeks
pleasure and demands instant gratification. It does not take
reality into account as it demands what it wants without
reason or logic.
 Second to develop is the EGO, which
resides in the conscious and preconscious levels of the
mind. Because the ego is considered the center of logic
and reason, it is also described as the decision maker.

The SUPEREGO is the third to develop and it resides in

all three levels of the mind. As the moral and social
aspect of personality, it is considered as a person’s
conscience. The superego demands strict adherence to
the laws of society and conformity to social norms. It
makes a person feel guilty. Like the id, it does not take
reality into account as it merely asserts and demands
moral perfection
Who is the main proponent of Psychoanalysis?

Sigmund Freud He was an Austrian neurologist and is known as the

Father of Psychoanalysis. Freud’s theory states that behavior and
personality are driven by past events, which are mostly inaccessible to an
individual’s consciousness.

Through a treatment called Psychotherapy, the originating event or

circumstance which hinders an individual to live a healthy life is brought to
the surface of consciousness. One technique used in Psychotherapy is called
free association, a technique that allows the patient to have an
inner dialogue with oneself by saying freely the words that he or she
associates with a thing, person, or an event. By having an inner dialogue,
the unconscious reveals itself and the words associated with an object
would gradually lead to the originating event which caused a mental
problem to the patient. Freud relates free association to what is now known
as the Freudian slip or slip of the tongue.
Criticisms and Limitation

Psychoanalysis is mainly criticized as

unscientific. This phenomenological approach is
characterized by the lack of quantitative and
experimental research in its theory and practice. It
is also argued that it lacks scientific basis and at
times is associated with the mystical practices of
witch doctors. Because most of the psychoanalytic
theories are based on case studies, their
applicability is questioned to be limited only to the
specific cases studied and not to the general public.
 The field of psychoanalysis has been
heavily influenced by the works of Sigmund
Freud. While routinely questioned and criticized,
its approach in understanding human behavior
remains relevant today, especially for the
treatment of deep-seated mental illnesses. As
part of the social sciences, Psychoanalysis
provides an alternative lens in understanding the
complexity of human behavior through the
context of personality, consciousness, and
ideology.
SITUATION ANALYSIS
Activity 1:
Directions: Read the situation below and answer the questions that
follow. Write your answers on a ½ crosswise.
Situation: Marissa went to the mall to buy a pair of school shoes. Upon entering
the shoe section, a pair of ragged shoes caught her attention. She was having a
hard time choosing between buying a pair of school shoes or buying the pair of
ragged shoes.
Questions: 1. What was the situation all about?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. If you are in the same situation, what will you choose to buy? Why?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
What is Rational Choice?

The Rational Choice Theory explains that

human action and behavior are products of choice.
Individuals rationalize their situations by processing
between the most beneficial choices and the lesser
individual cost. In the Rational Choice Theory, Cost-
Benefit Analysis is always performed in every given
situation and is considered an instinctual response of
every human. Cost is something disadvantageous to or
what is lost by an individual, while benefit is that which
is gained by or is advantageous to the individual after
making the choice.
RATIONAL CHOICE
Basic assumptions of Rational Choice Theory:

1. Individuals act purely on self- interest

2. Individuals understand their interests enough to rationally

categorize them according to what they most prefer.

3. Preferences are transitive in nature. This means that choices

have a hierarchical order and that the highest preference will
always be favored.
Key Concepts in Rational Choice Theory:

Social Consequence of Scarcity-based

Decision Humanity’s unlimited wants and perpetual
desires drove civilizations to either their
prominence or destruction. With natural resources
being finite and the requirements of human
ambition unending, the most rational choice is to
conserve the limited resources we have, and share
this with each other. However, the problem is that
individuals only seek self-interest and would end up
deciding what benefits them the most.
Who are the proponents of Rational Choice?

Important Theorists:
William Stanley Jevons
He was an English economist who applied the principles of
Rational Choice Theory in Political Economy. Jevons was one
of the first to advance the Theory of Marginal Utility, which
sought application in determining and understanding
consumer behavior. Jevons also identified the concept called
Equation of Change, which says that in order to get the most
utility, the ratio of marginal utility must be equal to the
price of the commodity. Marginal utility, in this sense, points
to the line wherein the value for a certain object is still
within satisfactory levels.
Gary Becker
He was an American Economist who
expanded the study of Economics to the realm
of sociology and the other social sciences.
Suggesting that human behavior is subject to
economic analysis, Becker argued that
individuals act to maximize their own welfare,
thereby taking the scope of Economics beyond
mere calculation of financial gains. Like the
other thinkers of Rational Choice Theory, Becker
ascribes to the principles that humans behave
according to their “perceived values and
preferences.”
CRITICISMS AND LIMITATIONS

Rational Choice Theory is heavily

criticized for its neglect of ethical and
moral standards. The main philosophy of
Rational Choice Theory is the acquisition
of personal interests, power, and wealth.
It is not strict with the method and the
product of decision-making.
 Rational Choice Theory banks on the
key idea that humans are actively calculating the
pros and cons of a particular choice, which
affects the type of behaviors that they exhibit.
These choices are often determined by an
individual’s preferences and the extent by which
he or she perceives them as immediate needs or
wants. This theory remains relevant today in
providing an analytical lens for understanding the
choices that humans make, especially with
regard to deviant acts.
 Activity 2:
Directions: Answer the following questions, and write your answers in your
activity notebook. (5 points each)
1. What is Rational Choice Theory?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. According to the Rational Choice Theory, how do people make decisions
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. What gave rise to Rational Choice Theory as a dominant approach in
explaining human behavior?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Activity 3:
Directions: Read and answer the questions below. Write your answers in a one whole sheet
Of paper
1.Why did you take the track that you are currently enrolled in?
___________________________________________________________
2. What are your desired goals or outcome, alternatives and strategies?
___________________________________________________________
3. Would you say that you applied rationality in making that decision?
___________________________________________________________
4. Aside from your choice of which track to enroll in, cite an instance in your daily life
wherein you applied rationality in making a final choice or decision. Elaborate your
answer by giving not only the choice and options available but also the reason for your
choice. ___________________________________________________________
5. As a student, how will you apply rational choice in your economic condition?
___________________________________________________________
INSTITUTIONALISM
What is Institutionalism?
In order to understand
Institutionalism, it is important to first
define institutions in this theoretical
perspective. Institutions are patterns,
routines, norms, rules and schemes that
govern and direct social thought and action.
Institutionalism therefore, is an approach that aims
to understand and analyze how actions, thoughts,
and meanings penetrate into the social
consciousness deeply enough to embed themselves
into the social psyche. There are different types of
institutionalism, but their common concern is to find
out the effects of these institutions and determine
how these affects the manner by which the society
functions.
What are the reasons why Institutionalism
claims that institutions exists?

1.Social legitimacy

2. 2. Survival
Why do you need to continue your
studies amidst the pandemic we are
facing right now?
An institution such as education exists because a
person would have a bleak future without it. That’s
why the Department of Education made a Learning
Continuity Plan. Being educated means having to
ascend social hierarchies and organizational structures,
which in turn affect the economic prosperity of the
person and survival in a capitalist market. Institutions
provide social legitimacy and survival through
isomorphism
What is Isomorphism?

Isomorphism refers to the

similarity in form, shape or structure.
Institutions arise, change, and persist due
to their regulative, normative, and
cognitive functions. These functions are
isomorphic in nature as they adopt in
form, shape or structure to provide social
legitimacy, survival or both.
Three Types of Institutional Isomorphism

THE REGULATIVE FUNCTION operates through coercive

isomorphism, which places value on expediency as an effect to
compliance. Change either happens or not depending on external factors
such as rules and laws.
THE NORMATIVE FUNCTION operates through normative isomorphism,
which places value on complying with social obligations. Change either
happens or not depending on external factors such as accreditations and
certifications.
THE COGNITIVE FUNCTION operates the mimetic isomorphism, which
places value on what is being complied with by others. Change either
happens or not depending on internal factors such as uncertainty and
prevalence of others’ performance.
KEY CONCEPTS IN INSTITUTIONALISM

FORMAL INSTITUTIONS are codified rules, policies,

and norms that are considered official, originating
from state laws, government and organizations.

INFORMAL INSTITUTIONS on the other hand, are

equally known rules and norms but are not
commonly written down.
INSTITUTIONAL ACTORS refer to the people who
make up society, whose actions are controlled and
regulated by institutions. Institutional actors can be
an individual, a group, an organization, or a
government that creates or follows rules
 Who are the proponents of
Institutionalism?

David Mitrany
He was a Romanian-born British scholar, historian,
and political theorist. He is considered the father
of functionalism in international relations, which
is classified under liberal institutionalism.
Jean Monnet

He was a French political

economist and diplomat. As
one of the originators of the
European Union, he saw the
needs of the state are to be
achieved through the
principle of supranationality.
As Mitrany argued against
territory being the source of
authority, Monnet used the
argument to erase country
borderlines.
Stephen Krasner
He is an American
professor of international
relations. Krasner argues
that the American
government and non-
government organizations
should prioritize the
stabilization of weakened
states so that American
interests would be
protected.
Criticisms and Limitations

Institutionalism has, as many definitions as

there, are scholars who practice it. Unsurprisingly,
Institutionalism has many forms, and as such, there
is no central approach that can define the method of
Institutionalism and that the predictability of
outcome changes as different researchers conducted
their studies. One criticism against Institutionalism is
that while it can describe and analyze differences
between institutions, it lacks the ability to analyze
changes happening in a certain situation.