Qualitative Data Analysis

Open Coding
• Definition: Open coding is the initial stage of qualitative data analysis
where data is broken down into discrete parts, closely examined, and
compared for similarities and differences.
• Identifying recurring themes like "motion sickness", "immersion", and
"hardware limitations" from the VR discussion
• It lays the foundation for the development of categories and sub-
categories in the data.
Axial Coding
• Axial coding is the process of relating codes (categories and
properties) to each other, through a combination of inductive and
deductive thinking.
• Example: Linking "hardware limitations" to "motion sickness" to form
a new category, "user discomfort.“
• It helps in reassembling the data fragmented during open coding.
Selective Coding
• Selective coding is the process of selecting the core category,
systematically relating it to other categories, validating the
relationships, and filling in categories that need further refinement
and development.
• Example: Identifying "user discomfort" as a core category and relating
it to "immersion" and "hardware improvements.".
• It leads to the integration and refinement of the theory.
Problem 2
• How do you foresee the future of AI for businesses?
• What are the opportunities related to deployment of AI for businesses?
• What are the challenges related to deployment of AI for businesses?
• What should be the ethical considerations while implementing AI for businesses?
• In your understanding, what aspect of AI can be detrimental to humanity (e.g,.
discrimination, inequality?
• What should be the best approach to frame ethical guidelines for AI?
• If you are given a chance to frame 3 rules that should be given AI, what those would
be?
• Who should be in charge of ethics for AI? Philosophers/Programmers/ Govts?
• Should all AI/ML designers necessarily undergo ethics training
Measurement and Scaling
Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects
are located.
Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is assigned a
number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 =
Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a
number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of
placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude
toward department stores.
Primary Scales of Measurement (1 of 2)
An Illustration of Primary Scales of Measurement
 Primary Scales of Measurement (2 of 2)
Table 8.1 Primary Scales of Measurement
Blank Blank Blank Blank Permissible Statistics Blank

Scale Basic Characteristics Common Examples Marketing Examples Descriptive Inferential

Nominal Numbers identify and classify objects Social Security numbers, Brand numbers, store types, sex Percentages, mode Chi-square, binomial test
numbering of football players classification

Ordinal Numbers indicate the relative positions Quality rankings, rankings of Preference rankings, market Percentile, median Rank-order correlation,
of the objects but not the magnitude of teams in a tournament position, social class Friedman ANOVA
differences between them

Interval Differences between objects can be Temperature (Fahrenheit, Attitudes, opinions, index Range, mean, standard Product-moment correlations, t-
compared; zero point is arbitrary centigrade) numbers deviation tests, ANOVA, regression, factor
analysis

Ratio Zero point is fixed; ratios of scale values Length, weight Age, income, costs, sales, market Geometric mean, harmonic Coefficient of variation
can be computed shares mean
A Classification of Scaling Techniques
Figure 8.2 A Classification of Scaling Techniques
A Comparison of Scaling Techniques
• Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects.
Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and
have only ordinal or rank order properties.
• In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the
others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to
be interval or ratio scaled.
Concept of Causality
A statement such as "X causes Y" will have the following
meaning to an ordinary person and to a scientist.
Ordinary Meaning Scientific Meaning
X is the only cause of Y. X is only one of a number of possible causes
of Y.
X must always lead to Y (X is a The occurrence of X makes the occurrence
deterministic cause of Y). of Y more probable
(X is a probabilistic cause of Y).
It is possible to prove that X is a cause We can never prove that X is a cause of Y.
of Y. At best, we can infer that X is a cause of Y.
Experimental Design
An experimental design is a set of procedures specifying:

 the test units and how these units are to be divided into homogeneous
subsamples,
 what independent variables or treatments are to be manipulated,
 what dependent variables are to be measured; and
 how the extraneous variables are to be controlled.
Validity in Experimentation
• Internal validity refers to whether the manipulation of the
independent variables or treatments actually caused the observed
effects on the dependent variables. Control of extraneous variables is
a necessary condition for establishing internal validity.
• External validity refers to whether the cause-and-effect relationships
found in the experiment can be generalized. To what populations,
settings, times, independent variables, and dependent variables can
the results be projected?
 A Classification of Experimental Designs
(1 of 5)

• Pre-experimental designs do not employ randomization procedures

to control for extraneous factors: the one-shot case study, the one-
group pretest-posttest design, and the static-group.
• In true experimental designs, the researcher can randomly assign test
units to experimental groups and treatments to experimental groups:
the pretest-posttest control group design, the posttest-only control
group design, and the Solomon four-group design.
 A Classification of Experimental Designs
(2 of 5)

• Quasi-experimental designs result when the researcher is unable to

achieve full manipulation of scheduling or allocation of treatments to
test units but can still apply part of the apparatus of true
experimentation: time series and multiple time series designs.
• A statistical design is a series of basic experiments that allows for
statistical control and analysis of external variables: randomized block
design, Latin square design, and factorial designs.
A Classification of Experimental Designs
(3 of 5)

Figure 7.1 A Classification of Experimental Designs

Laboratory Versus Field Experiments
Table 7.7 Laboratory Versus Field Experiments
Factor Laboratory Field
Environment Artificial Realistic
Control High Low
Reactive error High Low
Demand artifacts High Low
Internal validity High Low
External validity Low High
Time Short Long
Number of units Small Large
Ease of implementation High Low
Cost Low High
Limitations of Experimentation
• Experiments can be time consuming, particularly if the researcher is
interested in measuring the long-term effects.
• Experiments are often expensive. The requirements of experimental
group, control group, and multiple measurements significantly add to
the cost of research.
• Experiments can be difficult to administer. It may be impossible to
control for the effects of the extraneous variables, particularly in a
field environment.
• Competitors may deliberately contaminate the results of a field
experiment.
Importance of report
• If marketing data were a cake, then the research report is the frosting,
the sprinkles, and that candle you can’t blow out on your first try. It
makes your data irresistible to the higher-ups who make the big bucks
decisions.
Why Marketing Research is Essential

• Informed Decision Making: "You wouldn’t pick a Netflix series without reading reviews, would you?
Research lets businesses binge-watch data to make blockbuster decisions."
• Understanding Consumer Behavior: "Imagine having the superpower to read minds. Well, marketing
research is the closest thing to that—minus the spandex suit."
• Risk Mitigation: "Who likes surprises? Well, not when it comes to business! Research is the ultimate
'spoiler alert' for avoiding nasty plot twists in your business story."
• Applications in Real-World Business Scenarios
• Product Development: "Ever wonder why nobody's invented a solar-powered flashlight? Yep, you guessed
it—market research!"
• Market Entry: "Think of entering a new market like dating. You wouldn’t go in without stalking—I mean,
researching—the other party first, right?"
• Customer Satisfaction: "Happy customers are like an endless loop of your favorite song. Annoying to some,
maybe, but music to a marketer's ears!"
The Components of a Research Report

• Executive Summary
• Introduction
• Methodology
• Findings
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
• Objective
• The introduction serves to establish the context and relevance of your
research topic.
• Components
• Problem Statement: Clearly outline the issue or challenge that your
research addresses.
• Relevance of the Study: Explain why this research is important and who
stands to benefit from the findings.
• Objectives and Scope: State what you aim to achieve through your
research and the boundaries of your study.
Methodology

• Objective
• The methodology section elucidates the procedures and techniques
used in gathering and analyzing data.
• Components
• Research Design: Whether your approach is qualitative, quantitative, or
mixed methods.
• Sampling: Describe the population under study and how samples were
selected.
• Data Collection Methods: Specify the tools and procedures used for
collecting data, such as surveys, interviews, or observations.
Findings

• Objective
• Present the data you’ve collected and reveal the insights they offer.
• Components
• Data Presentation: Use graphs, tables, and charts to present your data
clearly.
• Narrative: Accompany your visuals with text that explains the data in
depth.
• Preliminary Analysis: Discuss the trends, patterns, and exceptions
observed in your data.
Conclusions

• Objective
• The conclusion section synthesizes your findings and relates them back to your initial
objectives and problem statement.
• Components
• Summary of Findings: Provide a concise recap of the most critical findings.
• Relation to Objectives: Assess how the findings align with the goals stated in the
Introduction.
• Implications: Discuss the broader implications of your findings on the field of study or
industry.
• This classic style focuses on clear, straightforward information delivery, which can be
beneficial in an academic setting like your MBA class at Stanford University. Feel free
to modify or expand upon these slides as you see fit.