THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

ANATOMICAL DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS

SYSTEM
 Centralnervous system(CNS)
 Peripheral nervous system(PNS)

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CNS
 Brain
 Spinal cord

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PNS
 All the neural tissue outside CNS
 Has two divisions:
 Afferent division (sensory input)
 Efferent division (motor output)

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PNS CONT’D
 Each of the two divisions is divided
into:
 Somatic
 Visceral/Autonomic

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PNS CONT’D
 Autonomic
–divided into 2 divisions:
Sympathetic
Non sympathetic

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General Organization of the nervous system
Brain & spinal
cord
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
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CNS
 Brain
 Spinal cord

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 THE BRAIN
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PARTS OF THE BRAIN
 Brainstem
 Cerebellum
 Diencephalon
 Cerebrum

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PARTS OF THE BRAIN

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BRAIN STEM
 Continuous with the diencephalon
superiorly and the spinal cord inferiorly
 Consists of 3 parts :
Medulla oblongata
Pons,
Midbrain

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MEDULLA OBLANGATA
 Continuous with the superior part of the
spinal cord
 Forms inferior part of brainstem.
 Measures about 3 cm
 Contains mainly:
Tracts
Nuclei

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TRACTS
 All
ascending (sensory)and
descending(motor) tracts extending
between the spinal cord and the brain

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NUCLEI
 Vital centers
 Sensory pathway nuclei
 Cranial nerves nuclei

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VITAL CENTERS
 Cardiovascular center-rate and force of
heart beat, blood vessel diameter
 Medullary rhythmic area of respiratory
centre-rhythm of breathing

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VITAL CENTERS CONT’D
 Vomiting center-cause vomiting
 Deglutition centre-promotes swallowing

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SENSORY PATHWAY NUCLEI
 The gustatory nucleus –part of the
gustatory pathway
 The cochlear nuclei-part of the auditory
pathway

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SENSORY PATHWAY CONT’D
 Thevestibular nuclei of the medulla and
pons are components of the equilibrium
pathway.

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CRANIAL NERVES NUCLEI
 Vestibulocochlear(VIII) nerves,
 Glossopharyngeal (IX) nerves
 Vagus (X) nerves
 Accessory (XI) nerves (cranial portion),
 Hypoglossal (XII) nerves.

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PONS
 Lies directly superior to the medulla and
anterior to the cerebellum
 About 2.5cm long
 Contains:
 Tracts
Nuclei

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NUCLEI
 Pontine
 Vitalcenters
 Sensory pathway nuclei
 Cranial nerve nuclei

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PONTINE
 Relay signals for voluntary movement
from motor areas of the cerebral cortex
into the cerebellum

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VITAL CENTERS
 Pneumotaxic area and apneustic area of
respiratory centre-control breathing

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SENSORY PATHWAY NUCLEI
 Vestibular nuclei-components of vestibular
pathway

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CRANIAL NERVE NUCLEI
 Trigeminal(V)
 Abducens(VI)
 Facial(VII)
 Vestibulocochlear(VIII)

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FUNCTIONS OF PONS
 Regulate vital function-breathing
 Relay information-sensory and motor
pathways
 Contains nuclei for cranial nerves

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MIDBRAIN/MESENCEPHALON
 Extends from the pons to the diencephalon
it is about 2.5cm long
 Contains:
Tracts
Nuclei

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TRACTS (CEREBRAL PEDUNCLES)
 Ascending and descending

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NUCLEI
 Reflex centres
 Cranial nerve nuclei

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REFLEX CENTERS
4 rounded elevation (colliculi)located
posterior part (tectum) of the mid-brain.
 Serves as reflex centre for visual activities

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CRANIAL NERVES NUCLEI
 Oculomotor(III)
 Trochlear(IV)

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CEREBELLUM
 Accounts for 10% the brain mass but
contains about 50 % of the neurons
 Lies :
 posterior to the medulla and pons and
inferior to the posterior portion of
cerebrum

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CEREBELLUM CONT’D
 Separated from :
Cebrum by tranverse fissure and tentorium
cerebelli
The brain stem by 4th ventricle

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CEREBELLAR HEMISPHERES
 Cerebellum is divided into 2 hemispheres
connected by vermis:
Right
Left
 Each hemisphere has 3 lobes:

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LOBES
 Anterior and posterior-govern subconscious
aspects of skeletal muscle movement
 Flocculonodular –contributes to equilibrium
and balance

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CEREBELLAR CORTEX
 The superficial layer of the cerebellum
 Consists of gray matter in a series of slender,
parallel folds called folia

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ARBOR VITAE
 Tractsof white matter
 Found deep to the gray matter

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DIENCEPHALON
 Extends from the brain stem to the cerebrum
 surrounds the 3rd ventricle

 Main relay station of sensory impulse that reach

the cerebral cortex from other parts of the brain
and the spinal cord

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PARTS
 Thalamus

 Hypothalamus

 Epithalamus

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THALAMUS
 Makes 80% of the diencephalon
 Divided into two halves joined by
intermediate mass

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HYPOTHALAMUS
 Small part of diencephalon located inferior to the
thalamus
 composed of nuclei in 4 major regions:

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REGIONS REGION
 Mammilary-Adjacent to the midbrain and
most posterior part; serve as relay stations
for reflexes related to the sense of smell
 Tuberal - Widest part; Contains the
infundibulum

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REGIONS CONT’D
 Supraoptic- Superior to the optic chiasma;
contains 4 nuclei:
 Paraventricular-oxytocin
 Supraoptic-ADH
 anterior hypothalamic
 suprachiasmatic nuclei-controls the
body’s biological clock

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REGIONS CONT’D
 Preoptic-Anterior to the supraoptic region;
participates in regulation of certain autonomic
activities

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EPITHALAMUS
 Small region superior and posterior to the
thalamus
 Consists of:
 Pineal gland
 Habecular nuclei

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PINEAL GLAND
 Size of a pea
 Protrudes from the posterior midline of the 3 rd
ventricle
 Secretes melatonin-more secreted during
darkness promoting sleepiness

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HABECULAR NUCLEI
 Involvedin olfaction, especially emotional
responses to odors

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CIRCUMVENTRICULAR ORGANS
 Part of diencephalon
 Lie in the wall of the 3rd ventricle

 Lack a blood brain Barrier

 Includes part of the hypothalamus, the pineal

gland and the pituitary gland

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FUNCTION
 Monitorchemical changes in blood thus
coordinating homeostatic activities of the
endocrine and nervous system such as:
 BP
 fluid balance
 hunger,
 thirst

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CEREBRUM
 Cerebral cortex is a region of gray matter
that forms outer rim of the cerebrum
 Divided into two hemispheres by
longitudinal fissure


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 Divided into four lobes by 3 sulci;
 The 3 sulci are:
Central- between frontal and parietal lobes
Lateral – between temporal from parietal
lobes
Parieto occipital- betwee parietal and
occipital lobes

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LOBES OF CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
 Frontal
 Parietal
 Temporal
 Occipital
 Insula (buried deep in lateral sulcus)

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LOBES

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SULCI

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GYRI/CONVOLUTIONS
 Foldsof the cerebral cortex
Precentral- Anterior to the central sulcus-
primary motor area
Postcentral gyrus-posterior to the central
sulcus; contains primary somatosensory area

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GYRI

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CEREBRAL TRACTS
 Commissures
 Association fibers
 Projection fibers

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COMMISSURES
 Interconnect right and left hemispheres so can
act as a whole.
 They include:
Corpus callosum is largest
Anterior commissures
Posterior commissures .

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ASSOCIATION FIBERS
 Connect different parts of the same hemisphere;
can be long or short

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PROJECTION FIBERS
 Run vertically-sensory(ascending) and motor
(descending)
 Connect cerebrum to :
lower parts of brain -thalamus, brainstem or
 spinal cord.

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CEREBRAL TRACTS

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SENSORY AREAS
 Found posterior to the central gyrus
 They include:
Primary somatosensory cortex:
Primary sensory areas- for special sense
organs

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PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY AREA
 Found on the postcentral gyrus in the parietal
lobe
 Allows conscious awareness of sensation and the
ability to localize it
 Receives nerve impulse for touch, pressure,
vibration, temperature, pain, proprioception etc

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SOMATOSANSORY AREA CONT’D
 A map of the entire body is present in this
area(sensory homonculus)
 Each point receive an impulse from a specific
part of the body
 Size of representation in the SSA depends on the
number of receptors present rather than on the
size of the body part.

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SENSORY HOMONCULUS)

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PRIMARY SENSORY AREAS
 Primary visual area-occipital lobe
 Primary auditory area-temporal lobe

 Primary gustatory area-parietal lobe

 Primary olfactory area-temporal lobe

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MOTOR AREAS
 Primary motor area
 Broca’s speech area

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PRIMARY MOTOR AREA
 Located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal
lobe
 Controls conscious or voluntary movement of
skeletal muscles

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PRIMARY MOTOR AREA CONT’D
 Eachregion in the primary motor area controls
voluntary contractions of specific muscle/muscle
group

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PRIMARY MOTOR AREA CONT’D
 Different
muscles are represented
unequally-more cortical area is devoted to
those muscles involved in skilled,
complex or delicate movement.

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MOTOR HOMONCULUS

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BROCA’S SPEECH AREA
 Located in the frontal lobe.
 Involved in the articulation of speech

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PROTECTION OF THE BRAIN
 Cranium

 Cranialmeninges
 Cerebrospinal fluid

 Blood brain barrier

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CRANIUM
 Made up of cranial bones.
 These include:
Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal
Sphenoid
Ethmoid

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CRANIAL MENINGES
 Connective tissue coverings
 Continuous with spinal meninges.
 Has 3 layers:

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LAYERS
 Dura mater
 Arachnoid mater
 Pia mater

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CRANIAL MENINGES

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DURA MATER

 2 layers of fibrous connective tissue, fused except

where they separate to enclose dural venous
sinuses
 Subdivide cranial cavity & limit movement of the
brain

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LAYERS OF DURA
 Periosteal layer -attached to bone
 Meningeal layer - proper brain covering

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ARACHNOID MATER
 Below the dura
 Between dura and arachnoid is the subdural
space

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ARACHNOID MATER CONT’D
 Deep to arachnoid is subarachnoid space which:
Is filled with CSF
 has lots of blood vessels running through it
(susceptible to tearing)

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PIA MATER

 Delicate
 clings to brain following convolutions

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BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER
 Tight junctions between endothelial cells of brain
capillaries, instead of the usual permeability-selective
transport
 BBB missing at the circumventricular organs

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 Protects
the brain against circulating toxins or
pathogens

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CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
 Clear colorless liquid
 Made in choroid plexuses (roofs of ventricles)
through filtration of plasma from capillaries
through ependymal cells and circulates in
ventricles
 About 500 ml/d produced; Total volume 100-160
ml

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FUNCTIONS
 Cushions the brain from physical and chemical
injuries
 nourishes brain-carries O2, glucose and other
needed chemicals from blood to neurons and
neuroglia

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VENTRICLES
 Fluid filled cavities in the brain
 Filled with CSF

 Lined by ependymal cells that line the choroid plexus

and make the CSF

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VENTRICLES CONT’
 Continuous with each other and central canal of
spinal cord
 They are 4 in number:

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LATERAL
 Paired,horseshoe shape
 Located in the cerebral hemispheres

 Anteriorly they are close, separated only by thin

Septum pellucidum

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LATERAL VENTRICLES

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THIRD VENTRICLE

 Locatedin the diencephalon

 Connected to:
The lateral ventricle by interventricular
foramen and
The 4th ventricle by cerebral aqueduct

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FOURTH VENTRICLE
Located in the brainstem
Dorsal to pons and top of medulla
Holes connect it with subarachnoid space

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4TH VENTRICLE

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THE SPINAL CORD
INTRODUCTION
 Spinal cord is the pathway for sensory input to
the brain and motor output from the brain
 Provide quick reflexive responses to many
stimuli

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LOCATION
 Spinal cord extends from the medulla oblangata
to the superior border of the second lumbar
vertebra(L2)
 It ranges between 42-45 cm.

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EXTERNAL ANATOMY
 spinal
cord has 2 conspicuous enlargements :
Cervical enlargement-C4-T1- where nerves
from and to the upper limbs arise
Lumbar enlargement-T9-T12- where nerves
from the lower limbs arise .

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CONUS MEDULLARIS
 Inferior to the lumbar enlargement,
 The spinal cord terminates as a tapering conus
medullaris which end at the level of the
intervetebral disc between L1 and L2

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FILUM TERMINALE
 Main extension of the pia mater
 Arise from the conus medullaris and blend with
the arachnoid and dura mater to anchor the
spinal cord to the coccyx

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INTERNAL ANATOMY
 Spinal cord consists of regions of white matter
that surround an inner core of gray matter

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 Dividedinto right and left sides by:
 Anterior median fissure ventrally and
Posterior median sulcus dorsally

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MEDIAN FISSURE AND SULCUS

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GRAY MATTER
 Shaped like a letter H with the gray commissure
forming cross bar of the H
 In the centre of the gray commissure is the
central canal which is filled with CSF

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HORNS
 Graymatter on each side is divided into three
horns:
Posterior/dorsal
Anterior/ventral
Lateral

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POSTERIOR/ DORSAL
 Containcell bodies and axons of interneurons
and axons of incoming sensory neurons

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GRAY MATTER IN SPINAL CORD

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ANTERIOR/VENTRAL
 Contain somatic motor nuclei

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GRAY MATTER IN SPINAL CORD

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LATERAL
 Found between the anterior and posterior horns
 Present only in thoracic and upper lumbar
segments of spinal cord,
 Contain autonomic motor nuclei that regulate
activities of the cardiac muscle, smooth muscle
and glands

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GRAY MATTER IN SPINAL CORD

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WHITE MATTER
 Consists primarily of bundles of myelinated
axons of neurons.
 Anterior and posterior horns divide the white
matter into columns namely:
Anterior/ ventral
Posterior /dorsal
Lateral

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COLUMNS
 Each column contains distinct bundles of axons
(tracts)
 There are two types of tracts
Sensory/ ascending tracts-carry impulse into
the brain-dorsal
Motor/descending tracts –carry impulse from
the brain-ventral

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PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES
 Vertebral column
 Meninges

 Cerebral spinal fluid

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VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 The vertebral foramina of all the vertebral
column form the vertebral canal
 Provide a shelter for enclosed spinal cord

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MENINGES
 Three connective tissue coverings encircling the
spinal cord:
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater

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 DURA
 most superficial,
 dense connective tissue,

 continuous with dura mater of the brain.

 Epidural space between the dura and the wall of

vertebral column

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ARACHNOID
 Avascular covering;
 Subdural space found between dura and
arachnoid which contains interstitial fluid.

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PIA
 Innermost;
 Thintransparent connective tissue layer
adhering to the surface of the spinal cord
and brain;

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PIA MATER
 There are many blood vessels within the pia
mater supplying O2 and nutrients to the spinal
cord
 Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater
is the subarachnoid space continous with that of
cranial meninges which contains CSF

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THE CRANIAL NERVES
CRANIAL NERVES
 12 pairs.
 Arise from the inside of the cranial cavity and
pass through various foramina in the bones of
cranium.

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CLASSIFICATION OF CRANIAL NERVES
 Sensory-I,II,VII- these carry axons of sensory
neurons
 Motor-III,IV,VI,XI, XII-contain axons of motor
neurons
 Mixed-V,VII,IX,X-contains axons of both
sensory and motor neurons

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 Cranial
nerves III,VII IX and X include both:
Somatic motor axons-innervate skeletal
muscles and
Autonomic motor axons(part of the
parasympathetic division)- innervate glands,
smooth and cardiac muscles

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CRANIAL NERVES
 ohoh oh to touch and feel very green
vegetables AH

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Cranial nerve Classification Function
1-Olfactory sensory Olfaction
2-Optic Sensory Vision
3-Oculomotor Motor Eyeball movement,
accomodation
4-Trochlear Motor Eyeball movement
5-Trigeminal Mixed Touch, pain, thermal
sensation, mastication
6-Abducens motor Eye ball abduction
7-Facial Mixed Gustation,
proprioception, facial
expression, lacrimation
& salivation
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Cranial nerve Classification Function
8-Vestibulocochlear Sensory Hearing, Equilibrium
9-Glossopharyngeal Mixed Taste, Salivation,
elevation of the larynx
10-Vagus Mixed Taste, proprioception,
GIT secretion, motility,
heart
11-Accessory Motor Coordinate head
movement and pectoral
girdle
12-Hypoglossal Motor speech and swallowing

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XII- HYPOGLOSSAL
 Muscles of the tongue
 Responsible for speech and swallowing

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 THE SPINAL NERVES
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SPINAL NERVES
 Forms path of communication between the
spinal cord and specific regions of the body
 Each is a mixed nerve

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PAIRS
 31
pairs
Cervical-8
Thoracic-12
Lumbar-5
Sacral-5
Coccygeal-1

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TYPICAL SPINAL NERVE
 Typicalspinal nerve has 2 connections to the
cord (roots):
Posterior/dorsal root
Anterior/ ventral root

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POSTERIOR
 Contain only sensory axons conducting impulses
from the sensory receptors into the CNS
 Each posterior root has a posterior root ganglion-
a swelling containing cell bodies of sensory
neurons

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ANTERIOR
 Contain axons of motor neurons
 Conduct impulses from the CNS to the effectors

 The roots unite to form a spinal nerve at the

intervertebral foramen

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BRANCHES OF SPINAL NERVE
 A shortdistance after passing through the
intevertebral formen a spinal nerve divides into
several branches called rami :

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 Posterior/dorsal ramus -serves deep muscles
and skin of the posterior surface of the trunk
 Anterior/ ventral ramus-serves muscles and
structures of the upper and lower limbs and the
skin of the lateral and anterior surfaces of the
trunk

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 Meningeal branch-renters the vertebral cavity
through the intervertebral foramina to supply the
vertebrae, vertebral ligament, blood vessels of
the spinal cord and meninges

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PLEXUS/TRUNKS
 Network of Axons of anterior rami except those
of thoracic nerves (T2-T12) formed by joining
of axons of adjacent nerves

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PRINCIPLE PLEXUSES
 Cervical –C1-C4- The cervical plexus supplies
the skin and muscles of the head, neck, and
superior part of the shoulders and chest
 Brachial-C5-T1- supplies the shoulders and
upper limbs

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PLEXUSES CONT’D
 Lumbar-L1-L4- supplies the anterolateral
abdominal wall, external genitals, and part of the
lower limbs.
 Sacral-L4-S4- supplies the buttocks,
perineum, and lower limbs.
 Coccygeal-S4-5, coccygeal

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 Trunks divide into divisions
 Divisions unite to form cords .

 The principal nerves arise from divisions except

in the brachial plexus where they arise from
the cords.

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 THE END
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