Voltage Regulation

1. Line regulation: To maintain constant output voltage when the

input voltage varies.
Line regulation is defined as the percentage change in the output
voltage for a given change in the input voltage.
) . .
Line regulation = 6V
(6V Ol.ff IVour )x100% ,%IV
( VIN QJ£L x I00% or Lme regulafwn =
VIN

2. Load regulation: To maintain constant output voltage when the load varies. load regulation
is defined as the % change in the output voltage from no-load {Vm) to full­load (V,,).

Load regulation = -V-1:!..b-...V. . J x I00%

[
v"
 Examples of Voltage Regulation
1. The input of a certain regulator increases by 3.5 V. As a result, the output voltage increases by 0.042 V.
The
nominal output is 20V. Determine0 the2line regulation in both% and in %/V.
Solution: line Regulation(%)= JC 100% = ; x 100% = 1.2%
0 042120

Line Regulation (%/V) = K 100% = · x 100% = 0.06%

tiv,.., J.s
2. The input to the voltage regulator decreases by 5 Vas a result, and the output of the regulator decreases by
0.25 V. (%/V) =
Solution: Line Regulation x 100% = O.ZS/lS x 100% = 0.33%
.tiv,,. s
3. If a S V power supply The
hasnominal output
an output is 15 V. Determine
resistance the l aine
of 80 mO and regu lation
specific in %/V.
maKimum output current of A. Calculate the
load regulation in% and %/mA.
Solution: VNl = SV
5 2
Vr L = SV-(BOmOx A) = 4.92V +Load regulation(%)= v 'v.v,, x 100% = .: x 100% = 1.6%
11

1.6%
Load regulation(%/mA) = OOOmA = 0.0016%/mA
4. A voltage regulator has a 12 Voutput when there is no load (IL= O). At full-load current of 10 mA, the output voltage is
11.9 V. Calculate the load regulation in% and %/mA.
Solution: VNl= SV, Vfl = 11.9V
12 19
Load regulation(%)= v'"v,v,, x 100% = · x 100% = 0.84% Load regulation (%/mA) = := 0.084%/mA
1
 The Basic Linear Regulator
The linear regulator is a DC- DC converter to provide a constant voltage output without using switching components. The linear
regulator is very popular in many applications for its low cost, low noise and simple to use.
It was the basis for the power supply industry until switching mode power supplies became prevalent after the 1960s. Power
management suppliers have developed many integrated linear regulators.
The linear regulator has limited efficiency and can not boost voltage to make V0"1 > V,".
Two basic types of linear regulator are the series regulator and the shunt regulator:
Series regulator: Control element of series regulator is connected in series with load.
Shunt regulator :Control element of the shunt regulator is connected in parallel with the load.
' /Sll+/1

r-----.--r v..,. v .W. -h 1111

...
S.riesrea:ul•tor Shunt rea:ul•tor

...

...

..
 Series Linear Regulator
The output voltage will be maintained at a constant value of;
V0UT = (l + R if R1J Vm
1.Ideally, Vx "'VRf -+ Error Amp= O -+ V0 is constant.
2.When V011r decreases, Vx < Vm -+ The error amplifier output will

. be high which turns on Ql -+ V1N connect to the output that adjusts

the output to desired level.
3.When VOllT increases, Vx > Vm -+ The error amplifier output will

, be low which turns off Q1 -+ V1Ndisconnect

.,
from the output that adjusts the output to desired level.
-----<v x !:"
Example Z: For V1N = 16V, Pz = SOOmW, Vz = 2.4V. Design a
IRI = (Vin -VRu l / R1= lz (I."' 0"' I _ Op-Amp)
Rl = (Vin -VRH)Z / PR1 series regulator to yield a regulated output Voor =av.

IRz = IRJ = VOUT/(R 2+R 1) (I." 0" I_ Op-Amp) Solution:

Example 1: For V'" = lSV, R2 = R3 = lOkO, R1 1k0 and
Vz: S.lV. Find VOOf, IR I ,IR2• IRland lz Solution:
V0 "(1+ Ri/R 2 ) Vm" (1 + lOkO / lOkO)S.1= 10.2V I R I
= (15- 5.1) / lkO = 9.9mA"' 12
IR1 = 10.2 / (10k0 + OkO): 0.51mA = IRJ
V0 = (1+ R/R3) Vm:: (1 + R/R 3) Vz= (1+ Ri/R3) 2.4V= av
-+ R/R3 :: 2.33 -+ R2 = 2.33R1
-+ Choose R1:: 10 kCl and R2 = 23.33 kCl. lz = 500 mW / 2.4V::
20a.3mA
R,:: (VIN(......)-Vz) / lz:: (16- 2.4)V / 20a.3 mA: 650
Efficiency : ri:: VoorNiN = a/16"' 50%
VOOT{maiol = VIN -VcE:: 16V- O.ZV::
15.SV
 Shunt Linear Regulator
The output voltage will be maintained at a constant value of: V0ur =
(1+ R3'R4 ) Vm
1.Ideally, Vx = VRH -+ Error Amp= 0 -+ V0 is constant.
2.When V0ur increases, Vx > VREF -+ The error amplifier output will be driving Ql more -+
increase input current causes higher voltage drop in R 1 that adjusts the output to desired level.

3. When V0 decreases, Vx < Vm -+ The error amplifier will be

driving Q1 less -+ decrease input current causes lower
lz = (VIN -Vz)/Rz = IR2
voltage drop in R that
1 adjusts the output to desired level.
lz(ma.) = (Pz / Vz)
Rl= (VIN - Vour )/IR1 Example 2: V1n "' 12V, Pz = SOOmW, Vz = 2.4V and current limiting
I Rl(max) = (V1n -0)/RRl (when Vaur= 0)
I Rl(m 3•l = SOmA. Design a parallel regulator to yield a regulated output
IRl = Vou1/IR1+ R4 ) = IR4
V001 =3.3V.
Example 1: For VIN = lSV, R1=300, Ri= lkO, Solution:
VauT = (1 + R)R 4) Vm= {1 + R)R ) Vz= (1+ R)R ) 2.4V= 3.3V
4 4

R3 = R4 = 10k0. Findpower ratingfor R1

-+ RJR4 = 0.375 -+ R3 = 0.375R4 -+ Choose RJ = 10 kO and R4 = 3 .75 kO. lz
Solution :
Worst case: Voin = OV short -+ = SOOmW/2.4V = 208.33mA
R2 = (V1N -Vz) I lz = (12 - 2.4)V I 208.33mA = 460
PRI = (VI N - Vour l2/R 1:(15 - Of/22 = 7.SW
R1 = (12 - O)V / 50mA = 2400 -+ Required P1 >12x0.05 = 0.6W
-+ Use lOW
Efficiency:l") = 3.3/12 = 27.5%
 Zener Diode Shunt Regulator
•For low current power supplies - a simple shunt voltage regulator can be made with a
resistor and a Zener diode.
•Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage Vz (1.24- 200V, ±5-10% ), maximum
power Pz (typically ZSOmW-SOW) and minimum lz (in µA).
Example: For Vin = lZV and the Zerner diode power rating Pz = lW to produce a regulated
output voltage V""1 = SV. Find load current IL for RL =500.
Solution: Maximum lz = Pz / Vz " 1/ 5 = ZOOmA -+ Minimum Rs" (Vin - V2) / lz = (12 - S)V / 200 mA "' 35 0.

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 ADJUSTABLE LINEAR REGULATORS
A typical integrated linear regulator needs only V 1w V0ur, FB and optional GND pins. Figure below
shows a typical3-pin linea r regulator, it only needs an input capacito r, output
capacitor and two feedback resistors to set the output voltage.

1.2V-25V Adjustable Regulator Example: Given V1N = 36V, IADJ = lOOµA provides

anoutput V0'JT = 24V.

a)Determine the resistorvalue of R2.
vouT 1.2sv (1 1 )+
b)What isthe efficiencyri,R?
IAOJIR V
Solution:
a) VOUT = 24 = 1.25V ( 1+ 2¥o) + (lOOµAx R2)

' 1.2S R2
22.75=

"
+ 0'4 R2=0.005308R2
-+ R2 = 4286 0
24
b)rJLR =36=66.7%
 LINEAR REGULATORS DRAWBACK
A major drawback of using linear regulators can be the excessive power dissipation of its series
transistor Ql
operating in a linear mode.
Since all the load current must pass through the series transistor, its power dissipat ion is Ploss = (V1N - V0) • 10.

·
The efficiency of a linear regulator can be estimated
by:
'lLR = POUT ·:e;oss VO
IO+v,: vo) /0 - ;,

i
$
00
Example: Given input VIN"' 12V and output VOUT = 3.3V -+
3.3
linearregulatoreff iciencvril.11=12 = 27.5%.

.
The 72.5% of the input power is just wasted and generates heat in
the regulator. This means that the transistor must have the thermal
capability to handle its power/heatdissipationat worst
u o. O.$ o.a 1
case at maximum V 1N and full load.So the size of the linear regulator and its heat
'"'• sink may be large, especially when V0 is
o much lessthan V 1N.
FigureS.Maximumlinear Regul ator

:
Efliciency
n.ViNRalio
 OBJECTIVES

•Introduction of DC-DC
Converter
•Voltage Regulation
•Types of DC-DC
Converters
• Linear regulator (LR)
• Series regulator
• Shunt regulator.
• Switching mode power supply (SMPS)
•Advantages and
Disadvantages
 Linear Regulators
Advantages
+ Low number of components makes linea r power supplies very cost-effectiveness overall and space savings
(unless heat sink is used).
+ Simplicity and low complexity design makes linear power supplies more reliable.
+ No switching noise and low output voltage ripple makes linear power supplies best suitable for app lications
where noise-sensitivity is essential.
+ Low output voltage ripple
+ The linear regulator is free of any switching noise,having ripple rejection capability and its low voltage
noise,wh ich makes the line.ar regulator of choice in such noise-averse applications as audio-visual,
communication,medical,and measurement devices.
 Introduction
DC to DC Converters convert DC power to another DC power level or
convert voltage/current to another voltage/current
Batteries are often shown on a schematic diagram as the source of DC voltage but
usually the actual DC voltage source is a power supply.
DC to DC converters are important portable electronic devices used
whenever we want to change DC electrical power efficiently from one voltage level
to another.
A power converter generates output voltage and current for the load from a given
input power source.
Depending on the specific application, either a linear regulator (LR) or a
switching mode power supply (SMPS) solution to be chosen.
 Linear Regulators
Disadvantages
The linear regutator can be very efficient only ifV0 is close to V1N
The linear regulator (LR) has another limitation, which is the minimum voltage difference between V 1f! and V0. The
transistor in the LR must be operated in its linear mode. So it requires a certain minimum voltage drop across the collector
to emitter of a bipolar transistor or drain to source of a FET. When V0 is too close to V1N, the LR may be unable to regulate
output voltage anymore.
The linear regulators that can work with low headroom (V1N -V0) are called low dropout regulators (LDOs). The linear
regulator or an LOO can only provide step-down DC/DC conversion.
Typical design may require a heat sink.
These disadvantages to linear power supplies include size, high heat loss, and lower efficiency levels when compared to a switch-
mode power supply. The problem with linear power supply units, when used in a high power application, is that it requires a
large transformer and other large components to handle the power. Using larger components increases the overall size and weight
of the power supply and can pose a challenge for weight
distribution within a given application.
Typical Application of DC-DC converter

Car battery 12V must be stepped down to 3-SV DC voltage to run DV D/CD player
laptop computers or cellular phone battery voltage must be stepped down to run
several sub-circuts, each with its own voltage level requirement different from that
supplied by the battery.
Single cell 1.5 V DC must be stepped up to SV operate an electro nic circuitry.
A 6V or 9V DC must be stepped up to SOOV DC or more, to provide an insulation
testing vol tage.
A 12V DC must be stepped up to +/-40V or so, to run a car hifi amplifier circuitry. A
12V DC must be stepped up to 650V DC or so, as part of a DC-AC sinewave inverter.
LINEAR REGULATORS APPLICATIONS
There are many applications in which linear regula tors provide su perior solutions
to switching supplies: 1. Simple/low cost solutions. Linear regulator or LOO solutions are
simple and easy to use, especially for low power applications with low output current where
thermal stress is not critical. No external power inductor is required.
2.Low noise/ low ripple applications. For noise-sensitive applications, such as communication and
radio devices, minimizing the supply noise is very critical.
3.Fast transient applications. The linear regulator feedback
loop is usually internal, so no external compensation is required.
4.Low dropout applications. For applications where output voltage is close to the input voltage,
LDOs may be more efficient than an SMPS.
We see that price sensitive applications prefer linear regulators over their sampled-time
counterparts. The design decision is especially clear cut for makers of:
•communications equipment
•small devices
•battery operated systems
•low current devices
•high performance microprocessors with sleep mode (fast transient recovery required)
 LINEAR REGULATORS VS SWITCHING
REGULATORS
Regulators Linear regulators are less energy efficient than switching regulators. Why do we continue using them?
Depending upon the application, linear regulators have several redeeming features:
•lower output noise is important for radios and other communications equipment
•faster response to input and output transients
•easier to use because they require only filter capacitors for operation
•generally smaller in size (no magnetics required)
•less expensive (simpler internal circuitry and no magnetics required)

Furthermore, in applications using low input-to-output voltage different ials, the efficiency is not all that bad! For
example, in a SV to 3.3V microprocessor application, linear regulator efficiency approaches 66%. And applications
with low current subcircuits may not care that regulator efficiency is less than optimum as the power lost may be
negligible overall.
 SWITCHING MODE POWER SUPPLY
(SMPS)
The switching-mode power supply is a power supply that provides the power supply function through low loss components
such as capacitors, inductors, and transformers -- and the use of switches that are in one of two states, on or off.
It offers high power conversion efficiency and design flexibility. It can step down or step up output voltage.
The term switchmode was widely used for this type of power supply until Motorola, Inc., who used the trademark SWITCH
MODE TM for products aimed at the switching-mode power supply market, started to enforce their trademark. Switching-mode
power supply or switching power supply are used to avoid infringing on the trademark. Typical switching frequencies lie in
the range 1kHz to 1MHz, depending on the speed of the semiconductor devices.
Types of SMPS:
Buck converter: Voltage to voltage converter, step down.
•Boost Converter: Voltage to voltage converter, step up.
•Buck-Boost or FlyBack Converter: Voltage-Voltage, step up and down (negative voltages)
•Cuk Converter: Current-Current converter, step up and down
These converters typically have a full wave rectifier front-end to produce a high DC voltages
 SWITCHING MODE POWER SUPPLY

1 _/-r-rv 1
(SMPS)

Stop-dowo I J •Vo"

Figura 1. Buck converter topology. Figure 2. Si111ple boost converter.

1
Figure 3. Inverting topology.

Tablel.SMPSConversion
Ralios
Topology Step-down
Voltage-Conversion Ra t
io
·V'";=JC Current-Conver.;ion Ratio
l1w'lour = D 11Wlour =

T·
Step-up VoUT/V1N = D l/(1- 0)
Step-up/dow n Vour/V1N = V(l - D) l1Wlour = D/(1 - D)
Vour/V1N = 0/(1 ·0) I

Figure 4 Transrorrner flyback topology

 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

The output of switching controller controls the ON and

OFF time of the switch. Increase Vcom rol will increase
duty cycle D.
The switching frequency is the frequency of the
ramp signal with constant peak
The duty cycle is defined as:
 The Buck Converter
The buck converter is known as voltage step-down converter, current step - up converter,
chopper, direct converter. It is the simplest and most popular switching regulator.
The re are two Mode of Operations:

1.Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM): Inductor current lldoes not reach zero, when output current 10 is very large.

2.Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM): Inductor current llwill reach zero, when output current 10 is very small.

Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM):

LC low-pass filter: to pass the DC component while attenuating the switching components.
diode is reversed biased during ON period, input
provides energy to the load and to the inductor
energy is transferred to the load from the inductor during switch OFF period
Interchange of energy between inductor and capacitor is referred as flywheel effect.
inthe steady-state,averageinducto r voltage is zero inthe steady-state,averagecapacitorcurrent is zero

Size:30mm(L) '18mm(W)' 14(H) mm

The Buck Converter in CCM

When theswitch ison (close):

• :V1 -V0 and V0 =V1

•v,
Inductor current I, will rise at rate of {V; -Vo)/L -+ I,= 110
•DiodeDis reverse biasedanddoesnot conduct (opencircuit) -+1•-= 0.
When the switch is off {open), current must still flow as the inductor works to
keep thesamecurrent flowing throughinductorandintotheload
•V, = -Vout and V0 = 0.7
•lnductorcurrent l,decreasesat rateof (-V0)/L -+ l.,= O.
•Diode Dis forward biased and conducts + I ,= '•-