Message to Students

This booklet on operational amplifiers has been compiled to fulfill the requirements of the
Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE). It addresses a specific need in
some of our high schools and is intended to augment the teachers’ material on the subject
matter. Booklets are provided to students during the CAPE Physics Workshop offered
annually by the Department of Physics at the University of the West Indies, Mona Campus.
These workshops target problematic topics in the Physics Syllabus and use lectures and
laboratory sessions to teach the material in a manner that enhances the students’
understanding.

The booklet starts with an overview of the CAPE Physics Electronics requirements then
moves into the relevant subject matter. The author presents the content of each section in
a way that relates to the targeted age group and facilitates quicker understanding. Worked
examples are included throughout the booklet and additional CAPE type questions are
added at the end.

The procedures for the practical sessions are added at the end of the booklet. In Lab 1, a
chosen operational amplifier circuit is constructed and tested on the lab bench. The results
of these measurements are plotted on a graph. In lab 2, the same circuit is simulated on a
computer and its results are compared to that of Lab 1. This technique is intended to provide
the students with a comparative feel for the hands-on experiments versus the simulated
ones.

The Department of Physics and the Mona School of Engineering hope that the students
find this booklet to be a valuable aid in their learning process and wishes each and every
student success in their upcoming examinations.

Paul R. Aiken (PhD)

Director and Deputy Dean
Mona School of Engineering
Faculty of Science and Technology
UWI, Mona

E-Mail: paul.aiken@uwimona.edu.jm

1
Table of Contents

CAPE Requirements ……………………………………………………. 2

What are Operational Amplifiers? .. ……………………………………. 3
Circuit Schematic Representation ………………………………………. 4
Power Supply Requirements…………………………………………….. 4
The Ideal Operational Amplifier ……………………………………… 5
The Typical (Real) Operational Amplifier …………………………… 9
The Op Amp as a Comparator …………………………………… 10
Application of the Comparator …………………………………… 13
Potential Dividers and Variable Resistors ………………………. 13
Light Dependent Resistors (LDR) ………………………………. 14
Thermistors ……………………………………………………… 14
Strain gauge ……………………………………………………... 14
Feedback in Op Amp Circuits ………………………………………… 17
Positive Feedback
Negative Feedback
The Inverting Amplifier …………………………………………… 18
The Non-inverting Amplifier ………………………………………….. 21
Effect of Negative Feedback on Gain and Bandwidth ………………… 22
Voltage Follower …………………………………………………… 26
Summing Amplifier ………………………………………………….... 27
Difference Amplifier ………………………………………………….. 29
An Operational Amplifier Circuit Example …………………………….. 29
Op Amp Problems ………………………………………………………. 32
Experiment 1 ……..…………………………………………………... 34
Experiment 2 …………………………………………………………. 36

2
CAPE Requirements

4. Operational Amplifiers Students should be

able to:
4.1 describe the properties of the ideal operational
amplifier;
4.2 compare the properties of the typical and the
ideal operational amplifier;
4.3 use the operational amplifier as a comparator;
4.4 use the fact that magnitude of the output
voltage cannot exceed that of the power Consider these effects in terms of whether they are
supply; advantages or disadvantages.
4.5 discuss the effect of positive and negative
feedback in an amplifier; Typical as well as ideal values for these quantities should be
4.6 explain the meaning of gain and bandwidth of an discussed.
amplifier;
4.7 explain the gain-frequency curve for a typical Include the fact that frequency is usually plotted on a
operational amplifier; logarithmic axis and explain the reason for this.
4.8 determine bandwidth from a gain frequency Precise numerical value related to the response of the ear is
curve; not required.
4.9 draw the circuit diagram for both the Students should be familiar with several representations of
inverting and non-inverting amplifier with a the same circuit.
single input;
4.10 use the concept of virtual earth in the Explain why the virtual earth cannot be connected
inverting amplifier; directly to earth although it is `virtually" at earth
4.11 derive and use expressions for the gain of both the potential.
inverting amplifier; State the two "Golden Rules' of Operational Amplifier
4.12 discuss the effect of negative feedback on the circuit analysis and show how they lead to the results
gain and bandwidth of an operational amplifier; required here.
4.13 perform calculations related to single-input Mention the effect of negative feedback on other op-amp
inverting amplifier circuits; characteristics.
4.14 perform calculations related to single-input, non-
inverting amplifier circuits;
4.15 describe the use of the inverting amplifier as a
summing amplifier;

Include the fact that it is also possible to configure the

op-amp as a difference amplifier.
4.16 solve problems related to summing amplifier
circuits;
4.17 describe the use of the operational amplifier as a Mention the important practical use of the voltage follower
voltage follower; as a buffer or matching amplifier.
4.18 analyse simple operational amplifier circuits;
Refer to note 4.11
4.19 analyse the response of amplifier circuits to
input signals, using timing diagrams.

3
What are Operational Amplifiers?
The term Operational Amplifier was originally used to describe an amplifier circuit which
performed various mathematical operations such as differentiation, integration, summation
and subtraction. Operational Amplifier, or Op Amp, is now more loosely applied to any
high gain alternating current (ac) and direct current (dc) amplifier capable of operating in
various configurations. Op Amps have extremely wide applications and may be found in
all types of circuit and system designs.

Op amps are a member of the family of linear integrated circuits. Integrated circuits (ICs)
consist of many transistors and few resistors and capacitors. Transistors are a special form
of semiconductors with properties similar to those of junction diodes. ICs are usually
fabricated on a specially prepared material using extremely precise process control. The
final product generally occupies areas less that one square centimeter, even for the most
complex ICs.

(a) LM741 Single OP amp (b) Quad LM741 op amp (LM324)

(c) Pin labels for LM741 (d) Pin labels for single packaged quad op amp

Fig. 1 The 741 Op amp single (8-pins) and quad packages (14-pins)

4
There are many different types of op amps designed for varying applications. The most
popular of these is the LM741 op amp developed by National Semiconductor Company.
Fig. 1 shows pictures of two package types of the LM741 Op amp and their corresponding
internal schematic.

Circuit Schematic Representation

An op amp is represented by the symbol shown in Fig 2. For the LM741 op amp, pins 2
and 3 are what we called the inverting and non-inverting inputs, respectively, because of
the way the input signals are acted upon. Pin 6 is the output and pins 7 and 4 are the pins
to which the positive and negative power supply inputs are connected. In some circuits, pin
4 may be connected to the circuit ground (or common) instead of a negative voltage supply.
positive power supply voltage

7
2 -
Inverting input
6
Output
3
Non-inverting input +
4

Negative power supply voltage

Fig. 2 The Op amp schematic symbol

Power Supply Requirements

All ICs have a minimum and maximum power supply voltage rating. The LM741 op amp
may be operated from a ‘dual-rail supply voltage’ of ±5 Vdc to ±18 Vdc, or a ‘single-rail
supply’ of 10Vdc to 36 Vdc with respect to ground. The op amp will not work properly if
smaller voltages (than the minimum in this range) are applied and will be damaged if
greater voltages (than the maximum in this range) are applied. Before using any IC in a
circuit always check its manufacturer data sheets for its maximum ratings. This may be
easily found by doing a Google search of the part number.

5
Fig. 3 show examples of single and dual rail power supplies. At this time, the most common
type available to high school students are those made from connecting batteries in series
aiding arrangements (Fig.3(c)). Other types of DC power supplies are available.

+ 9 Vdc

+
+ 9 Vdc
9V
-
+

9V Ground
-

+
Ground 9V
-
- 9 Vdc
(b) A 9-Volt battery
(a) Single rail 9 V supply (c) A dual rail ±9 V supply

Fig. 3 Power supply configuration

The Ideal Operational Amplifier

The output voltage of an op amp is proportional to the difference of the voltages at its
inverting (V-) and non-inverting (V+) inputs. This is represented by Equation 1

Vout = A0 (V + − V − ) (1)

where A0 is called the Open-Loop gain of the op amp.

Ok…let’s pause here for a minute. What is this ‘open-loop’ and this ‘gain’ thing we are
talking about???. .. Well, the typical connection for an op amp in a circuit is one where
some other component (usually a resistor) is connected between the output pin and the
inverting input pin. This causes the signal that goes into the op amp to get loop back from
its output to its input. This setup is called a ‘closed-loop’ configuration. Therefore, if
there are no components connecting the output back to the input, then we can say that we
have an ‘open-loop’ configuration. So Eq.1 describes the gain of the op amp when the
loop is open…. OK …so here we go with that ‘gain’ word again.

6
The gain of an amplifier is the amount of amplifications that is given to the input signal
to get the output signal. In other words, it’s how many times the input signal gets
‘multiplied’ to equal the output signal. The gain is always found by dividing the voltage
value of the output signal by that of the input signal. The gain is always ‘just a number’
and has no units. So ‘open-loop gain’ means how many times the input signal gets
amplified when there is nothing connected between the output and input pins. By the
way, this connection we are talking about, the one between the output and the input, it is
called ‘feedback’. That is, a portion of the output signal gets fed back to the input
whenever we have the connection in place. We will talk some more on this later on.

We will now attempt to describe some of the main properties of an ideal op amp. Don’t
be frightened by all the new terminologies (weird words). We will list the properties first
then go through line-by-line and try to provide additional explanations. So here goes …
the ideal operational amplifier may be assumed to have the following properties:

(a) An infinite open-loop gain. The slightest difference in V+ and V- will caused the
output to go to ‘saturation’. Saturation voltage cannot exceed the power supply
voltage.
(b) An infinite input impedance (resistance). This ensures that no current flows into
the input terminals (V+ and V-). However, voltages may be present.
(c) An infinite bandwidth. This assumes that it amplifies any input range of
frequencies.
(d) Zero output impedance (resistance). This ensures that the amplifier is unaffected
whatever output circuit it is connected to.
(e) An infinite slew rate. The means that the input and output frequency changes are
always exactly in synch.
(f) Zero voltage and current offsets. This ensures that when the input signal voltages
are zero the output will also be zero regardless of the input source resistance.

If your head is spinning at this point, just stop, take a deep breath, get some water or
something…. Now, read these explanations below, then go back and re-read the properties.
It is very important that you understand these concept and terminologies.

7
Let’s start with the first one,
(a) An infinite open-loop gain. The slightest difference in V+ and V- will caused
the output to go to ‘saturation’. Saturation voltage cannot exceed the power
supply voltage.

By now, we all understand this open-loop gain thing. If not, re-read the top of this section.
The difference now is that we put the word ‘infinite’ in front of it! Infinite just means very,
very large, … countless … So we are just saying that when the op amp is configured
without any ‘feedback’ it has a very, very, very large gain.

The next word is saturation, what does it mean for the op amp to be saturated? What is it
saturated with? Suppose we were to plot the gain of the op amp from its definition, i.e.
Vout
gain = , where Vout and Vin are the output and input signal voltages, respectively. We
Vin

will get the plot shown in Fig. 4(a). Just a nice straight line with a constant gradient!
Agreed!!! Ok.. let’s move on.

Vout (Volts)

Vsupply
Vout (Volts)
Region of
Region of Fixed output
Constant
reducing gain
Gain

Region of
Constant gain

0 Vin (mV) 0 Vin (mV)

(a) Constant gain (b) saturation limit

Fig. 4 Op amp gain and voltage saturation

What is the maximum possible output voltage of the op amp?? No idea!!! Think about it
for a while … let’s ask another question then. Where does the op amp get its voltage from?
Yes, this is easier… The op amp gets its voltage from the voltage of the power supply that
is connected to it. Therefore, it stands to reason that the maximum output voltage of the op

8
amp cannot exceed its power supply voltage. In other words, the power supply voltage sets
the voltage output limit of the amplifier. Now, let’s get back to Fig. 4. Look especially at
Fig.4(b)… Whenever the output voltage starts getting close to the value of the power
supply voltage, Vsupply, something strange starts happening. The gain starts decreasing, i.e.
Vout/Vin is getting smaller. As a result, the gradient of the slope starts decreasing and is
getting flatter and flatter. By the time it reaches the power supply voltage value, it becomes
a flat straight line which will never exceed the power supply voltage value. Just as it reaches
this point, the op amp is said to be saturated. That is, the output signal remains at a constant
voltage irrespective of any increases in the input signal voltage.

Moving on to the second property:

(b) An infinite input impedance (resistance). This ensures that no current flows
into the input terminals (V+ and V-). However, voltages may be present.

What is impedance anyway? It is the term used to describe the combined resistances of all
the circuit elements, including elements that you will not study at the CAPE level.
Impedance values depend on the frequency of the signal. Its unit is the Ohm, same as that
for resistances. So, for the sake of simplification, let’s think of impedance as resistance.

Why is it that no current flows into an infinitely high resistance? It goes back to Ohm’s
law, which state that V = IR. If V is 10 volts and R is 10 MΩ, then the current I = 10V ÷
10,000,000Ω. Therefore, I = 1 μA or 10-6 A. In these kinds of circuit, this current is
considered negligible. This is the same principle behind the operation of an ideal voltmeter.
It measures the voltage while having negligible current flow through it.

Moving on …..
(c) An infinite bandwidth. This assumes that it amplifies any input range of
frequencies.

Bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which the op amp operates with a constant gain.
This will be explained in more detail later on.

9
 (d) Zero output impedance (resistance). This ensures that the amplifier is
unaffected whatever output circuit it is connected to.

This is self explanatory by now. It just means there is no output resistance when the op
amp is connected to a load. In this state it is capable of ‘driving’ any load.

Points (e) and (f) are self explanatory. Also, understanding these features is not a CAPE
requirement at this time.

So let’s now restate the assumptions of an ideal Op amp:

(a) An infinite open-loop gain.
(b) An infinite input impedance (resistance).
(c) An infinite bandwidth.
(d) Zero output impedance (resistance).
(e) An infinite slew rate.
(f) Zero voltage and current offsets.

The Typical (Real) Operational Amplifier

Real op amps have characteristics that approach those of ideal op amp, but never quite
attained them. They deviate from the ideal op amp in the following ways:
(a) The open loop gain is usually in the range of 105 – 106. Although this is high, it is
not infinite.
(b) They have large but finite input impedances usually in the range of 10 6Ω – 1012Ω.
Thus, drawing very small, but measurable currents at their input terminals.
(c) They have a finite bandwidth which is dependent on the gain. The higher the gain
the smaller the bandwidth. This is usually described in its frequency response
characteristics or the Gain-Bandwidth product.
(d) The output impedance is usually about 100 Ω.
(e) They have finite slew rate and voltage and current offsets.

10
Note that while the ideal op amp does not exist, its properties serve as a valuable starting
point for preliminary circuit analysis.

The Op Amp as a Comparator

As discussed earlier, an op amp has an inverting (V-) and a non-inverting (V+) input. These
inputs may be connected as single-ended inputs or as a differential input. In single-ended
input mode, only one of the inputs has a voltage signal while the other is grounded. In
differential mode, both inputs have voltages with respect to ground. Equation 1 may be
applied to both of these cases to create these three open-loop gain scenarios:

1. Vout = A0V + Input signal (Vin) is on V+ input and V- terminal is grounded

2. Vout = A0 ( −V − ) Input signal (Vin) is on V- input and V+ terminal is grounded

3. Vout = A0 (V + − V − ) for cases where a differential input signal is applied

This may be represented schematically as shown in Fig. 5.

+ Vsupply + Vsupply

- -

+ Vin +
Vin Vout = A0V + Vout = A0 ( −V − )
- Vsupply - Vsupply

ground ground

(a) Case 1 (b) Case 2

+ Vsupply

Vin +
Vin Vout = A0 (V + − V − )
- Vsupply

ground 11
 (c) Case 3
Fig. 5 Open-loop gain scenarios

Some important observations:

1. In case 1, the output signal will always be of the same polarity (or phase) of its
input signal.
2. In case 2, the output signal will always be of the opposite polarity (or phase) of its
input signal.
3. In case 3, the polarity of the output will depend on which of the inputs has the larger
voltage:
a. If V +  V − then polarity will be opposite to that of V-
b. If V +  V − then polarity will be same as that of V+
4. A negative output voltage can only be obtained if the op amp is connected to a dual
rail supply (i.e ±Vsupply).

A Comparator may be made up of any of these three configurations. The signals at the
input terminals are ‘compared’ and their difference is multiplied by the open-loop gain of
the op amp to produce the output voltage. Let’s look at these three examples:

12
Example 1: What is the output Voltage for an op amp circuit with the following
characteristics?
V+ = 1V V- = 0 Volt (or grounded) A0 = 105
+Vsupply = +12Volts -Vsupply = - 12 Volts

Solution:
(Use circuit in case 1 of Fig. 4)
Vout = A0V + = 10 5  1 = +100 ,000 Volts

But stop right here…Remember, you cannot get an output voltage that is
greater that your power supply voltages. Therefore, Vout cannot exceed
+Vsupply, i.e.
Vout = + 12 Volts

Whenever this happens, the op amp is said to be SATURATED. Saturation voltages

cannot exceed the power supply voltages.

Example 2: Same as Example 1 except V+ = 0, and V- = 1 Volt.

Solution: Vout = -100,000 Volts

But by now we know this cannot exceed the -12 Vsupply. Therefore the real answer
is: Vout = -12 Volts.

Example 3: Same as Example 1 except V+ = 1.3 V, and V- = 1.1 V

Solution: Applying Case 3 equation,

Vout = A0 (V + − V − ) = 10 5 (1.3 − 1.1)

= 0.2 x 105 = 20,000 Volts

Again the actual value is:
Vout = +12 Volts

13
Application of the Comparator
The comparator is used in many circuit applications where two states need to be compared
to produce a desired output signal, which is usually used to control some other circuit or to
switch some state. A not so obvious use is that of a voltage-level-shifter. That is, use can
be made of the fact that an output voltage that is equal to the power supply voltage can
always be obtained, irrespective of how small the input voltage difference is.

Usually, when the op amp is used as a comparator, its input terminals are connected to
some kind of potential divider circuit. One of these potential dividers creates a fixed voltage
that is used as a reference, while the other varies in accordance with some other physical
or electrical property that may either be internal or external to the circuit. It may be
important at this point to say a little about potential dividers and variable resistors.

Potential Dividers and Variable Resistors

A Potential Divider or voltage divider is a simple arrangement of two resistances across
one voltage source. From Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws, we know that the sum of the voltage
drops across each resistance will be equal to the supply voltage. In other words, the voltage
drop across each of the resistances is always less than that of the voltage source. By varying
the resistances, we can vary the amount of voltage across them. We can collect an output
voltage at the point just between the two resistances. In most cases this output is taken with
respect to the ground. Note that we are referring to two resistances and not two resistors.
There is a reason for this! While two resistors will work perfectly well as voltage dividers,
there are a set of resistors that has variable resistances. They have three terminals, one of
which is a slider that is used to vary the resistance that is seen at the output. Terminals 1
and 3 (see Fig. 6) may be connected across a voltage source and the output taken from
terminal 2. An illustration of these resistors is shown in Fig. 6.

Fixed resistor Variable resistor Variable resistor

1 2 1 3 1 3

2 2 14
Fig. 6 Fixed and variable resistors

Fig. 7 shows actual voltage divider examples using these two types of resistors. The value
of the output voltage (in Fig. 7) can always be determined from Equation 2.

R2Vsup ply
Vout = (2)
R1 + R2
Note that in Fig.7 (b) the variable resistor is divided into two resistances, the one above the
slider, R1, and the other below, R2. Eq. (2) applies in all cases where the output is
connected to a very high resistance (or impedance), for example, the input terminal of an
op amp.

R1 R1
+
+

Vsupply Vsupply

R2 Vout
R2 Vout

(a) Two fixed resistor divider (b) Variable resistor divider

Fig. 7 Voltage Dividers

Example 1: If Vsupply =12 V, R1 = R2 = 10 kΩ, what is the value of Vout?

15
 Solution: Using Eq.2;
10 ,000  12 12
Vout = = =6
10 ,000 + 10 ,000 2
= 6 Volts

Example 2: If Vsupply =12 V, R1 = 10 kΩ, what value of R2 is required to let Vout =

4V?
Solution: Modifying Eq.2 so that R2 becomes the subject:
R1Vout 10 ,000  4
R2 = = = 5000  = 5k
Vsup ply − Vout 12 − 4

Other forms of variable resistors exist that have only two terminals, instead of three. Their
resistances usually depend on some external physical condition, like temperature, light or
strain. Resistors with resistances that depend on the amount of light present are called Light
Dependent Resistor (LDR) and those that depend on temperature are called Thermistors.
• An LDR is made by sandwiching two metal electrodes by a film of cadmium
sulphide. In complete darkness, it has a resistance of about 10MΩ, but in bright
sunlight, its resistance falls to about 100Ω. Therefore, by varying the amount of
light shining on the LDR, we can vary its resistance. In Example 1 above, Replace
R2 with a LDR and calculate Vout for both darkness and sunlight cases.
• A thermistor is a temperature dependent resistor which is manufactured from the
oxides of various metals. They are made in all kinds of shapes and sizes. Negative
temperature coefficient types have resistances which becomes smaller as
temperature increases.
• A strain gauge is made by sealing a length of very fine wire in a small rectangular
of thin plastic sheet in such a way that if the plastic is stretched (i.e. under strain),
the wire will be stretched, which in turn increases its resistance.

So let’s get back to our discussion of the op amp as a comparator. Fig 8 shows an example
of a comparator application. Resistors R3 and R4 fixed the voltage at the non-inverting

16
input to half the +Vsupply voltage (use the voltage divider equation to prove this). The
voltage at the inverting terminal will depend on the value of the resistance of the LDR, R2.
In the ABSENCE of light (e.g at night time) the LDR will have a resistance of
approximately 1000kΩ. This makes the voltage at V+ (4.5V) LESSER than the voltage at
V- (~9 V) and the output to be equal to –Vsupply (or negative saturation). In this output
state, no current will flow through the Light Emitting Diode (LED) and it will remain off.

+9V

R1 R3
10kΩ 10kΩ

- R5

+
+
LDR
LED
9V
R2 R4 -
10kΩ

ground

+
9V
-

-9 V

Fig. 8 Comparator application: A light sensitive circuit

In the PRESENCE of light (e.g. in daylight) the LDR resistance will be approximately 100
Ω, causing the voltage at V+ to be greater than that at V-. The output of the op amp will
then switch to the positive saturation voltage which equals +Vsupply. In this state, a current
will flow through the LED to turn it on. That is, the LED will be lit. Resistor R5 is required
to limit the current through the LED. Usually, LED draws a current of 10 mA and has1.8
+ Vsup ply − 1.8
V drop across it, therefore R5 value is = 720  .
0.01

This is the basic principle of operation of a photosensitive light detector, like those installed
outside your houses. Note that the LDR can be replaced by a thermistor to produce an ice-
warning LED circuit.

17
Note that the logic of the operation of this circuit shows that the LED will be on during
daylight. If you want it to be on during the night then you must redesign the circuit logic
to enable this. This may be achieved by doing any one of the following:
1. Switching around the circuit positions of R1 and R2 (LDR).
2. Switching around the inputs to the Inverting and the Non-Inverting inputs (pins 2 & 3)
3. Switching around the polarity of the LED
4. Re-connect the LED so that it is connected forward biased between the +9V supply
and R5.

18
Feedback in Op Amp Circuits
Feedback, as the word implies, is the process of taking some, or all, of the output signal of
an amplifier and adding it back to its input. The basic arrangement for this is shown in Fig.
9.

Vin+βVout
Vin Amplifier
Add Gain, A0 Vout

βVout
Feedback
Fraction, β

Fig. 9 Basic feedback in amplifier

A fraction β of the output voltage is fed back and added to the input applied voltage. By
inspection of Fig. 9, it is seen that the fraction of signal fed back to the input is  Vout . This

gets added to the input, Vin, to give Vin +  Vout . This combined input is amplified by the

gain A0 of the amplifier to give an output of Vout = A0 (Vin + Vout ) . This may be rewritten

as:

Vout = A0Vin + A0 Vout

A0Vin = Vout − A0 Vout

A0Vin = Vout (1 − A0  )

The overall gain of this feedback arrangement may now be expressed as:

Vout A0
= (3)
Vin (1 − A0  )

19
There are two kinds of feedback that depends on the polarity of β. They are positive
feedback and negative feedback.

Positive Feedback
Referring to Eq. 3 above, if β is positive, then the A0  term can be made to be equal to 1,

making the denominator term (1 − A0  ) equal to zero. That is, the overall gain will be

infinite. So we now have an amplifier system with an infinite gain, even without any
inputs. This is the basis of the principle of operation of oscillator circuits. Note that positive
feedback is only possible when the output signal is fed back in phase with the input signal,
so in the case of the op amp, the feedback signal must be sent to the non-inverting input
terminal.

Negative Feedback
If the fraction β is negative, then the denominator term in Eq. 3 is greater than unity. The
overall gain of the feedback amplifying system is now much smaller than the open-loop
gain. At first glance, this may seem pointless, but there are some very great advantages for
doing this:
a. Lowering the gain significantly increases the bandwidth. That is, it allows
amplification over a greater frequency range.
b. There is less distortion of the output signal. The op amp doesn’t have to saturate
anymore.
c. Overall improvement in the operational stability of the circuit.

The Inverting Amplifier

The inverting amplifier is shown in Fig. 10. For simplification, the power supply
connections are not shown. Also, it is assumed that the op amp is not saturated. An input
signal Vin is applied to the resistor R1, which is connected to the inverting input terminal.
Resistor Rf is connected across the output and the inverting input terminal to provide
negative feedback.

20
 Rf

R1 VG
-

Vin +
Vout

Fig. 10 The inverting amplifier

The non-inverting input is connected to ground so its potential is at exactly zero volt. The
behavior of an op amp is such that when any of its input terminals is grounded it causes a
virtual ground condition to exist at the other terminal. This point is labeled VG in Fig.10.
This is an important point and needs restating. When the amplifier output is fed back to the
inverting input terminal, the output voltage will always take on that value required to drive
the signal difference between the amplifier input terminals to zero. Another point to note
is that because of the very large input impedance no current flows into the input terminals
of the op amp.

Let us now derive an expression for the gain in terms of the R1 and Rf. The circuits of
Fig.11 (a) and (b) show the directions of current flow in an inverting amplifier. Since no
currents flow into the input terminals, all currents must flow through the external resistors,
R1 and Rf.

Rf
Current, I

R1 VG
Current, I
-
Current, I

-ve input +
+ve output

21
 Rf
Current, I
Current, I
R1 VG
-
Current, I

+ve input +
-ve output

0-volt

(a) +ve flowing (b) -ve flowing

Fig. 11 Direction of current flow in the inverting amplifier

The same current, I, that flows through R1, also flows through Rf. Therefore, Ohm’s law
may be used to derive a simple expression of the voltage gain.

Current through R1 = Current through Rf

From Ohm’s law (V=IR), we can express the current in terms of voltage and resistance;

VR1 VR f
Therefore, =
R1 Rf

Where, VR1 and VRf are the voltage drops across resistors R1 and Rf, respectively.
But, since the voltage at the inverting input is 0-volt (at the point VG) then:

VR1 = Vin − 0 and VR f = 0 − Vout

Substituting,

22
 Vin − 0 0 − Vout
=
R1 Rf

Vin − Vout
=
R1 Rf

Vout Rf
=− (4)
Vin R1

That is, the voltage gain of an inverting amplifier is equal to the negative of the ratio of its
feedback resistance to its input resistance.

The Non-inverting Amplifier

The non-inverting amplifier is shown in Fig.12. An input voltage Vin is applied directly to
the non-inverting input terminal, V+. Negative feedback is applied by means of resistors Rf
and R1, as shown.

Rf

R1
-

+
Vout
Vin

0V

Fig. 12 The non-inverting amplifier

23
Assuming that the amplifier is not saturated, then the voltages at the two input terminal
must effectively be the same. That is V+ = V-. In this setup, V+ is equal to Vin and V- is
equal to the voltage dividing of Vout by Rf and R1. This may be expressed as:

R1Vout
Vin = V + = V − =
R1 + R f

By rearranging, the overall voltage gain of the amplifier is given by

Vout Rf
= 1+ (5)
Vin R1
Exercise: Verify Eq.5 by using the current flow technique used to derive the gain equation
for the inverting amp.

Important Observations:
1. The non-inverting amplifier produces an output that is in phase with the input
signal, hence the name non-inverting.
2. The inverting amplifier produces an output that is ‘out-of-phase’ (usually by 180
degrees) with its input. Look back at the circuits of Fig. 10 and Fig. 12.
3. The input signal of the inverting amplifier goes through the input resistors. This
means that the impedance seen by the input signal is dependent on the values of the
resistors.
4. In the case of the non-inverting amplifier, however, the input signal goes directly
to the non-inverting input of the amplifier, which has infinitely high input
impedance. Because of this, the current drawn from the signal source is negligible
and this circuit configuration is extremely suitable for ‘BUFFER AMPLIFIER’
applications. That is, it does not load down the signal driving circuit.

Effect of Negative Feedback on Gain and Bandwidth

Fig.13 shows a circuit that could be used to measure the open-loop gain of a real op amp
at a number of different frequencies. During measurement of gain, the amplifier must not

24
be saturated. Because the open-loop gain is about 105, if Vsupply is ±12V then the
maximum output voltage would be 12V. This means that the maximum input signal must
be 12V ÷105 = 0.12V = 120mVpeak.

+ 12V

Vac +
Vout
- 12V

ground

Fig. 13 Measuring the gain and bandwidth of an open loop op amp

The sinusoidal input signal may be obtained from a frequency generator and an
oscilloscope may be used to measure the input and output voltages (or waveforms). The
frequency may be varied from 0 Hz (dc) to 1 MHz. A plot of the gain versus frequency for
this open loop amplifier is shown in Fig.14. This is called the frequency response curve of
the op amp.

gain
106

105

104

103

102

10

1
10 102 103 104 105 106
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 14 Frequency response of the open-loop op amp circuit

25
The plot shows that in the open-loop mode, the op amp does not amplify all frequencies
equally. The range of frequencies for which the gain is more or less constant is called the
bandwidth of the amplifier. For this op amp in open loop mode, its bandwidth is about dc
to 10 Hz, or just 10 Hz. An important observation from the plot is that if a larger bandwidth
is desired, the gain must be reduced. How can we reduce the gain? By using negative
feedback of course! We just did that in the previous sections.

Using the circuits of Fig. 10 and Fig. 12, shown together in Fig. 15, and applying a variable
frequency sinusoidal signal, Gain-Frequency plots may be obtained when both input and
output are measured with an oscilloscope.

Rf Rf

R1 R1
-
-

+ +
Vac
Vout Vac
Vout

ground 0V

(a) Inverting setup (b) Non-inverting setup

Fig. 15 Circuits to determine frequency response of negative feedback amplifiers

Note that the gain of both the inverting and non-inverting amplifiers may be easily adjusted
by varying the values of one are both resistors (R1 and/or Rf). They may also be adjusted
to be the same value. They have same frequency response, but different resistor values.
Fig. 16 shows the frequency response curves for gains of 10, 100 and 1000.

The main observation from these plots is that as the gain decreases, the bandwidth
increases. That is, as more and more negative feedback is applied, the bandwidth increases.
Therefore, negative feedback improves bandwidth while reducing gain. But look more
closely at the relationship between the product of the Gain and the bandwidth. Yes, it seems
always to be constant. Let’s look at the three cases of Fig. 16 again.

26
 gain
106 Without feedback

105 With feedback

104

Overall gain = 1000 103

102

10

1
10 102 103 104 105 106
Frequency (Hz)

gain
106 Without feedback

105 With feedback

104

103

Overall gain = 100 102

10

1
10 102 103 104 105 106
Frequency (Hz)

gain
106 Without feedback

105 With feedback

104

103

102

Overall gain = 10 10

1
10 102 103 104 105 106
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 16 Gain-Bandwidth for variable gain feedback amplifier

When the gain is 1000 the bandwidth is 103 making a Gain-Bandwidth product of 106. The
second case has a gain of 100 and a bandwidth of 104 giving a gain-bandwidth product of

27
106. Likewise the third case! Go back to Fig. 14 for the case without feedback. Its gain is
105 and its bandwidth is 10 making the gain-bandwidth product of 106. This is a very
important property of the op amp and is used in many design considerations.

Important observation:
Sometimes you may be required to design circuits with large gain and large
bandwidths. For example, suppose a gain of 100 and a bandwidth of 10 5 are desired.
From the plots in Fig. 16, this cannot be obtained from one op amp circuit. So why
not cascade (join in series) two op amp circuits, each with a gain of 10.

Voltage Follower
What is a voltage follower? It is also called a unity gain buffer, that is, it has very high
input impedance and low output impedance and is very applicable in cases where signal
sources must not be loaded down. To load down a circuit means to connect a load that will
cause too much current to be drawn. Fig. 17 shows the configuration of an op amp as a
voltage follower.

+Vs
-

+
-Vs Vout
Vin

ground

Fig. 17 A voltage follower

In this configuration negative feedback is provided by directly connecting the output to the
inverting input. Vout will adjust itself in such a way as to ensure than the voltage at V- is the

28
same as that of V+. The voltage at V+ is Vin, therefore, Vout will always be the same as Vin.
Some characteristics of the voltage follower are:

1. Infinite input impedance

2. Low output impedance
3. Input and output are always in phase
4. Output voltage is the same as the input voltage. That is, Gain = 1

Question: What is the bandwidth of an op amp voltage follower?

Answer: Since the gain is always 1, look at the frequency response plots. At
gain=1, we always have maximum bandwidth. In Fig. 14, the bandwidth at
gain = 1 is 1 MHz.

Summing Amplifier
The inverting amplifier configuration of the Op amp may be configured to operate with
more than one input signals. Fig. 18 shows such a configuration where 3 input signals, V1,
V2, and V3 are connected to resistors R1, R2 and R3, respectively. The other ends of the
resistors are connected together at the inverting input terminal.
Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3

R1 I1
V1 Rf
R2 I2
V2 -
R3 I3
V3
+ V ou
t

Fig. 18 The summing amplifier

The analysis we did earlier for a single input inverting amplifier may be extended for this
3-input configuration. From Kirchhoff’s current law, we know that the algebraic sum of

29
the currents flowing into a junction must be equal to the algebraic sum of the currents
flowing out of that junction. Since the V+ input terminal is grounded, then the V- terminal
must be at a ground potential as well, i.e. 0 volt. Also, no current will flow into the terminals
of the op amp (because of their infinitely high input impedance). Therefore, the currents I1,
I2 and I3 produced by the input voltages V1, V2, and V3 can only combine to flow through
the feedback resistor, Rf, creating a voltage drop across Rf that (from Ohm’s law) is equal
to Rf (I1+I2+I3). But, the voltage drop across Rf is equal to Vout. Therefore, Vout = - Rf
[I1+I2+I3]. Note the minus sign!! If current flowing into the junction is positive, then current
flowing out must be negative.

We can express the currents in terms of the input voltages. Once again, because of the
V1 V V
virtual ground (or earth) at the inverting input terminal, I 1 = , I 2 = 2 and I 3 = 3 .
R1 R2 R3

Substituting in expression for Vout:

V V V 
Vout = − R f  1 + 2 + 3  (6)
 R1 R2 R3 

This expression may be extended for many inputs system. Likewise, if there were only 2
V3
inputs then the term with should be removed.
R3

Summing circuits are used in the design of audio mixers. Input 1 may be from a
microphone, input 2 from a CD player, and input 3 from a turn table (phono player), etc.
The input resistors may be made variable for separate volume adjustment, while the
feedback resistor may be made variable for the master volume adjustment. In most
applications, however, the output of the summer is fed to a different amplifier circuit for
master volume adjustments.

30
Difference Amplifier
The op amp may also be configured as a difference amplifier (or subtractor). Fig. 19 shows
such a configuration. Notice the use of the same resistances, R1 and R2!
R2

R1
V2 -
R1
V1 + Vout

R2

Fig. 19 The difference amplifier

R2
Vout = (V1 − V2 ) (7)
R1

An Operational Amplifier Circuit Example

In this section we will examine a number of op amp circuits operations with respect to dc
and ac signal inputs. Wherever appropriate, waveform diagrams (or timing diagrams) will
be used to show the relationship between the input and output signals.

Response to a variable voltage 1 KHz input signal: Fig. 20 shows a typical inverting
amplifier with supply voltages ± 10V. The input signal is obtained from a 10Vpeak, 1Kz
signal generator and is varied (from 0 -10V) by adjusting the slider arm of the variable
resistor. 100 kΩ

Signal
Generator
(10V, 1kHz +10 V
10 kΩ
Slider
100kΩ -
Variable
resistor
+
Vout
-10 V

Fig. 20 An inverting amplifier circuit

31
Try to answer the following:
1. What is the voltage gain of the amplifier?
2. What is the maximum peak voltage output?
3. Draw the output waveform corresponding to input voltages of
a. 0.1 volt
b. 1 volt
c. 5 volts
d. 10 volts
4. How can the gain of the amp be increased by a factor of 10?
5. What is the maximum input voltage that will not saturate the amp?
Solutions:
− Rf − 100k
1. Gain is = = - 10
Rin 10k

2. Max. peak voltage = Vsuppy = 10 V (or -10V)

3. In drawing waveform diagrams. Always draw the input and the output on the same
plot.
a. Note the 180 degree phase change

Voltage

0.1V
input

time

1V

output

32
 b. 1 volt input will give 10 volts output. Waveform looks like that of (a).

c. 5 volts input will saturate the amplifier. The output signal will be clipped at the
saturation voltage of ±10 V.

Voltage

5V
input

time

10 V
output

-10 V

d. A similar waveform is obtained as in (c) when input is 10 V. Waveform will look

more like a square wave.

4. Change the 100 kΩ resistor to 1 MΩ., or the 10kΩ to 1kΩ, or use any other resistor
combination that gives a gain of 100.

5. The maximum input signal that will not saturate the amp is the Vsupply divided by the
gain.
Vsup ply  10V
= = 1 volt
gain 10

33
OP Amp Problems

1. The circuit of Fig. 21 was used as a buffer amplifier for an audio signal.

R2 = 400kΩ

+12V
R1 = 100kΩ
-

Vaudio + Vout

-12V

Fig. 21 Buffer Amplifier

Answer the following questions:

(a) What amplifier configuration is this (inverting or non-inverting)?

(b) What is the theoretical gain?

(c) Sketch of graph of the output vs input voltage when the input voltage is varied
from 100mV to 5V.

(d) What is the saturation voltage of this circuit? Show this on your sketch in (c)
above.

(e) What is the maximum input before saturation? Show this on your sketch in (c)
above.

(f) Are there any advantages of using this buffer amp over other configuration?
Explain.

2. Using the circuit of Fig. 21, but replacing the audio input with variable frequency
generator. It was found that the gain was different for different frequencies. Explain!

34
3. Explain the effect of negative feedback on

(a) The gain of an op amp

(b) The bandwidth of an op amp

(c) The gain-bandwidth product

(d) The saturation voltage

4. Design a 2-input audio mixer circuit that has gain of 10.

5. Fig. 22 shows a 2-stage op amp circuit.

600kΩ
+15V
100kΩ +12V -
0.2V Vout
- Va
+
+ -15 V
-12V

Fig. 22 Two stage amplifier

Determine the following:

(a) The value of the voltage Va.

(b) The output voltage, Vout

(c) The total gain of the circuit.

(d) Which of the two op amp configuration above determines the bandwidth of
the circuit?

6. Use any amplifier configuration to explain the concept of virtual ground.

35
EXPERIMENT #1 Inverting Amplifier

AIM: Determine the effect of negative feedback on the gain and

bandwidth of an Operational Amplifier.

APPARATUS: Dual voltage power supply ( 12 V), 741 Operational Amplifier,

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, Resistors (1 k, 10 k, 100 k) and
function generator (0 – 1 MHz).

DIAGRAM:

1. Choose two resistors Rf = 10k and Ri = 1k, such that the Gain of the amplifier
is 10 and connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. The pin labels for the Op
amp may be obtained from page 3 of this workbook.
Place the input signal on Channel 1 and the output signal on channel 2 of
the scope.

2. Set your signal generator to produce a sinusoidal waveform and set voltage
amplitude to any value between) 0.5V and 1.0 V.

3. Adjust the frequency of signal generator to 100 Hz. Remember the Cathode
Ray Oscilloscope must be used to check/verify the output (frequency and
voltage) of the signal generator.

36
4. Measure the output voltage of the Operational Amplifier using the cathode ray
oscilloscope.

5. Repeat steps 3 & 4 at frequencies 1 kHz, 10 kHz, 100 kHz, 1 MHz.

6. Tabulate your results in the table below.

Inpuit Voltage (Vin) Output Voltage (Vout) Voltage Gain (Vout/Vin) Frequency (Hz) Log of Frequency

100 2

1,000 3

10,000 4

100,000 5

1,000,000 6

7. Plot graph of log of Gain vs. log of frequency.

8. Determine the Gain - Bandwidth product and the maximum bandwidth of the
LM741 Op Amp.

DISCUSSION: Discuss your result as they relate to the aim of the experiment.

9. Repeat the experiment in Part 1, but set Rf = 100kΩ and Ri = 1kΩ to produce
voltage gains of 100. Tabulate your results below:

Inpuit Voltage (Vin) Output Voltage (Vout) Voltage Gain (Vout/Vin) Frequency (Hz) Log of Frequency

100 2

1,000 3

10,000 4

100,000 5

1,000,000 6

10. Make a plot of log of Gain vs. log of frequency on the same graph created in Part
1.

37
11. Determine the Gain-Bandwidth product and the maximum bandwidth of the
OpAmp.

DISCUSSION: Discuss your result as they relate to the aim of the experiment

38
EXPERIMENT #2 Simulation of Experiment 1

AIM: Using Multisim Live simulator to determine the effect of negative

feedback on the gain and bandwidth of an Operation Amplifier.

APPARATUS: Multisim Live Simulation.

DIAGRAM: Draw the circuit of Experiment 1 in Multisim Schematic Editor as

shown:

Procedure:

The lab instructor will guide you through the simulation setup and measurement via
‘transient analysis’. You will use Multisim to obtain the output voltages and make the plots
as required by Experiment 1.

1. Click the following link to start the simulation

https://www.multisim.com/content/9DqSigwz3dkSMgdXN8t4jT/online-
simulator/open/

2. The Multisim window should open up and the image below would appear.

39
3. You will delete the figure that appears by selecting keys “CTRL” + “A”. Once the
figure is highlighted click on the x in the window.

40
4. Click on Schematic at the top of the window.
5. You will now draw the circuit inside the Multisim window by selecting and placing
the components on a blank sheet. Click on the components on the left side of the
window.

Select and place each component as follows: uA741 (for the op amp), resistor x
3, Vdc for voltage supply times 2, Vsin for signal, and the ground connections.

6. Place the components to match the layout in the circuit diagram (Expt 1) then
make all wire connections. This is done by clicking on the end of the component

and appears. Place the mouse at one component, make one click, then
place the mouse at the other component, and make another click. Repeat this
procedure as the components are connected as shown:

41
7. Double click on each resistor to set its value.

8. Double click on the Vdc parts and set values to 12V

9. Double click on Vsin to open a window.

10. Set values as

AC mag = 0.1 (this is the desired input voltage level: 100mV)

VO/ Voff = 0
VA/Vampl = 0.1 (same as AC)
Freq = 100 (this set it to 100 Hz)

Then click ok to save values. During the experiment you must re-select this
window to change the frequency value to 1k, 10k, 100k, and 1MHz.

11. Insert Vin and Vout labels by double clicking on the input and output wires:

42
12. This will be where the voltage pins should be placed. Click on the V pin on the
left side of the window and start placing.

13. You are now ready to start your simulations. Click on “Interactive” and a
dropdown menu with appear select “Transient”. Enter the values shown in the
transient window. Set the initial time and select manual time setup to 10 ms and
the final time to 1 s.

43
14. Click on Split at the top of the window and then select “Start Simulation” to start
your simulations. The wave form will be displayed on the right of the screen.

15. Display the input and output waveform (Vin and Vout) and take the relevant
measurements. The lab instructors will show you how to do this.

16. Record your data in the table below:

To change the frequency, please revisit step 10

44
 Inpuit Voltage (Vin) Output Voltage (Vout) Voltage Gain (Vout/Vin) Frequency (Hz) Log of Frequency

100 2

1,000 3

10,000 4

100,000 5

1,000,000 6

17. Make a plot of Gain vs. log of frequency on a graph paper (or in EXCEL).

18. Determine the Gain-Bandwidth product and the maximum bandwidth of the
circuit.

DISCUSSION:

Discuss your result as they relate to the aim of the experiment and compare your
results for the simulations to that of the hands on measurements.

45