Part IV; Chapter

Nine; Leadership
Leadership
Leader and leadership
defined
⚫ A forceful and dynamic personality who
really leads from the front; an architect
and implementer of strategy; a mediator
in conflict situations; an integrator who
assures the climate of the organization; a
person able to motivate subordinates and
who, by persuasion, compulsion or
example to others; succeeds in getting
others to follow the leader’s wishes
⚫ Another definition by John Seaman Garns is that “leaders are just
ordinary people with extraordinary determination.”

⚫ Harvard Professor Rosabeth Ross Kanter suggests that leadership is

“the art of mastering change . . . the ability to mobilize others’
efforts in new directions.
There are different theories presented by the scholars to
explain and identify the characteristics of leadership in an
organization, in terms of their effectiveness
Leadership trait
theory
⚫ One of the early approaches
understanding leadershi was to
identification p “traits th
of specific ” e
leaders supposedly possessed. tha
t

⚫ Leadership traits represent the personal

characteristics that differentiate leaders
from followers.
⚫ potentially lasts throughout one's entire life. It is
something that is relatively inflexible, which would
make it difficult for managers to significantly change
these traits among their employees (or individuals
changing their spouse’s traits)
⚫ Despite thequestions surrounding
the validity of leadership trait reasonable
personality
theory, it is to assumethat
certain traits are associated with
leadership, while others are not.
⚫ Research over the years reveals that effective leaders tend to
share the following traits:
⚫ • Intelligence -- the ability to integrate and interpret information.
⚫ • C reativity -- innovative and original in their thinking
⚫ • Self-confidence -- trust in themselves and confidence in their
abilities.
⚫ Drive -- a high level of energy, initiative, and tenaciousness
⚫ • Task-relevant knowledge -- know their business and what
it takes to make it successful.
⚫ • Credibility – honest, trustworthy, predictable, and
dependable.
⚫ • Motivation -- enjoy influencing others to achieve shared
goals.
⚫ • Flexibility -- adapt to fit the needs of followers and
demands of situations
⚫ Drive -- a high level of energy, initiative, and tenaciousness
⚫ • Task-relevant knowledge -- know their business and what
it takes to make it successful.
⚫ • Credibility – honest, trustworthy, predictable, and
dependable.
⚫ • Motivation -- enjoy influencing others to achieve shared
goals.
⚫ • Flexibility -- adapt to fit the needs of followers and
demands of situations
⚫ Trait-based theory, by implication, asserts that the
best leaders are born to lead and that effective
leadership and potential leaders are determined by a
largely pre- destined and unchanging set of character
traits.
⚫ From a training and development standpoint, trait-
based theory also implies that if a person does not
possess the “right” leadership traits, then he or she
will not be able to lead effectively, or, certainly,
will not lead as well as a natural-born leader.
⚫ Training and development can foster leadership ability
to a degree, but what really matters in this concept is
possessing the appropriate traits or personality
profile.
Leadership Behavior
Theory
⚫ Researchers define behaviors as observable
actions, which makes measuring them more
scientifically valid than trying to measure a human
personality trait
⚫ Behavioral theory contains some very different
assumptions from trait theory. Trait theory assumes
that a leader is born with specific traits that make
him or her a good leader.

⚫ Behavioral theory, on the other hand, assumes that

you can learn to become a good leader because
you are not drawing on personality traits. Your
actions, or what you do, define your leadership
ability
 Situational Leadership
 Theory
This theory attempts to explain why a leader
who is very successful in one situation may fail
when in another new situation or when the
situation changes.
 While researchers have proposed several
contingency theories, one of the most famous
was developed originally by P. Hersey and K. H.
Blanchard.
 , Hersey Blanchard’s
situational model
⚫ In 1982 these researchers developed what they termed
situational leadership theory, which uses “styles” of leadership that
align with the task-versus-people orientation.
⚫ But this leadership theory holds that a leader’s most appropriate
action or behavior depends on the situation and on the followers.
⚫ To an extent, the effectiveness of a leader depends on whether his
or her followers accept or reject him/her, as well as on the extent to
which the follower have the ability and willingness to accomplish a
specific task.

⚫ The key words are acceptance and readiness. According to

Hersey and Blanchard, the motivation and the abilities of various
⚫ They group leaders into four styles
of leadership:
⚫ delegating,
⚫ supporting,
⚫ coaching, and
⚫ directing.
⚫ Their theory assumes that each of these leadership styles can be
effective, depending on the development level of the individual or
people you are leading.
⚫ In this theory, then, how you lead isn’t a question merely of you
and your skills and abilities; it also depends heavily on your
followers’ abilities and attitudes.

⚫ The Directing, or “telling,” leadership style is about task behavior.

⚫ It involves telling people what they should be doing (one-way

communication):
⚫ • What to do
⚫ • How to do it
⚫ • Where to do it
⚫ • When to do it

The giving of direction is followed by closely

supervising their performance.
Supporting involves relationship
behavior, which includes:
⚫ • Listening to people
⚫ • Providing support and encouraging the
efforts of the followers, who have the
ability and knowledge to do the work
⚫ • Facilitating their involvement through
problem-solving and decision-making
⚫ • Passing day-to-day decisions on tasks to
the followers who are involved with
them.
Delegating requires minimal direction
and support.
⚫ The leader enables by discussing problems
with the followers and coming to agreement
on the nature of the problem.
⚫ The decision-making for addressing the
problem is handled by the subordinates, who
“run their own show.” Good leaders,
according to Hersey and Blanchard, must
adapt their leadership to
styles the “maturity” and willingness of
their
subordinates.
⚫ This creates a new level of complexity for
leaders: how thoroughly the willingness,
motivation, and abilities of the followers
are considered can decide how
successfully they will be led.
⚫ In this and in similar theories, the
leader isn’t everything; the followers
must be included in the equation
 Leadership
styles
-1, Likert’s management
system
⚫ Rensis Likert and his associates
studied the patterns and styles of
managers for three decades at the
University of Michigan, USA, and
identified a four-fold model of
management systems
⚫ The four systems of management system or the four
leadership styles identified by Likert are:
⚫ System 1 - Exploitative Authoritative: Responsibility lies in
the hands of the people at the upper echelons of the
hierarchy.The superior has no trust and confidence in
subordinates.
⚫ he decisions are imposed on subordinates and they do not feel
free at all to discuss things about the job with their superior.The
teamwork or communication is very little and the motivation is
based on threats.
⚫ System 2 - Benevolent Authoritative: The responsibility
lies at the managerial levels but not at the lower levels of the
organizational hierarchy.The superior has condescending
confidence and trust in subordinates (master-servant
relationship).
⚫ Here again, the subordinates do not feel free to discuss things
about the job with their superior.The teamwork or
communication is very little and motivation is based on a system
of rewards.
⚫ System 3 - Consultative: Responsibility is spread
widely through the organizational hierarchy. The superior
has substantial but not complete confidence in
subordinates.
⚫ Some amount of discussion about job related things takes
place between the superior and subordinates. There is a
fair amount of teamwork, and communication takes place
vertically and horizontally. The motivation is based on
rewards and involvement in the job.
⚫ System 4 - Participative: Responsibility for achieving
the organizational goals is widespread throughout the
organizational hierarchy.
⚫ There is a high level of confidence that the superior has in
his subordinates. There is a high level of teamwork,
communication, and participation.
⚫ The nature of these four management systems has
been described by Likert through a profile of
organizational characteristics. In this profile, the
four management systems have been compared
with one another on the basis of certain
organizational variables which are:
⚫ Leadership processes
⚫ Motivational forces
⚫ Communication process
⚫ Interaction-influence process
⚫ Decision-making process
⚫ Goal-setting or ordering
⚫ Control processes
2,Tri-Dimensional Grid

⚫ TheThree-Dimensional Grid or 3-D

Leadership Model was developed by
Professor Bill Reddin as an extension
of the managerial grid
⚫ The 3D Grid introduces another
dimension, Effectiveness.
⚫ Effectiveness concerns the effect when a
leader employs a style in a particular
situation or context. As such, this model
takes into consideration the situational
demands for the leader to be most
effective.
⚫ The grid contains 3 dimensions:
⚫ task-orientation,
⚫ relationship orientation, and
⚫ effectiveness.
When is a Leadership
Style Effective?
⚫ A leadership style is considered to be effective when it meets
the demands of the situation.The identified managerial styles
include:
⚫ Related - This is characterized by High - Relationship
Orientation, Low - Task Orientation.The leader sees the
organization as a social system. Personal interaction and the
environment is more important than focusing on tasks or trying
to make subordinates more productive through corrective
actions.
⚫ Integrated - This is characterized by High - Relationship
Orientation; High -Task Orientation.This is generally an effective,
involved manager.There is high social interaction with
subordinates as well as concerted efforts to improve
productivity through teamwork and strong communications.
⚫ Separated - This is characterized by Low - Relationship
Orientation; Low -Task Orientation.The leader provides
policies and procedures and does little to monitor
subordinate activity.
⚫ Dedicated - This is characterized by
Low
- Relationship Orientation; High -
Task Orientation.The leader lays
down directives and closely
monitors the activities and
production of employees. The
leaders authority is based upon
formal power.There is a lack of
social interaction.
3, Grid-Fielder’s contingency
theory model
⚫ presentsthe contingency or situational
theory of leadership by highlighting the
three important factors which has affect
on the performance of leaders.

⚫ Some of them are listed below:

⚫o Leader-Member Relations:
⚫ It describes that what are the relations
between employees and the leader and
up to what extent the employees have
trust on leader’s and how much the
leader can attract h/her employees and
subordinates and up to what level the
leadership is source of inspiration for
them.
⚫o Task Structure:

⚫ Thisfactor talks about the nature of jobs

for employees whether they are routine
or non routine, in order to manage and
get the maximum output of employees
work.
⚫ Position
Power:position
⚫ The is the power
power
leadership which s/ of
he organization. has in
⚫ The wit the
the power
leadership
decisions thei
h implementatio of
and needed handle
r n
and is
to
organizationa issue manageconfidenc
(Fiedler
l ,1996). s with e th
e
Leadership
development
⚫ The Leadership Network (n.d.), a consulting
agency specializing in LDPs, defines leadership
development as an intentional effort to provide
leaders with opportunities to learn, grow, and
change and appears to be as appropriate a
definition as any.
⚫ Allen, Conklin, and Hart (2008) define LD as a
process of expanding an organization’s capacity to
generate leadership to attain organization goals
(). In sum, it seems LDPs emphasize the
concerted, formalized effort of individuals and
organizations towards leader improvement
Leadership
development
⚫ Consensus appears to exist regarding the overall
purpose of LDPs. For organizations, Amagoh
(2009) suggests these programs should focus on
knowledge and skills that will enhance leader
effectiveness. Research has shown a direct
correlation between individual intelligence and
overall leader effectiveness (Atwater, et al.,
1999).
⚫ The skills gained in LDPs provide not only
additional knowledge regarding content but also
influence the way they are perceived by others.
Further, LDPs should provide purpose, direction,
and motivation to help leaders bring people to
act together to accomplish a common goal (Antal,
2013)
Types of Leadership
development program
⚫ 1, Leadership coaching has become an integral
component of most leadership development
strategies (Boyce, Jackson, & N eal, 2010) and
is a component of leadership development but
distinguishable as it specifically focuses on the
learner (Ely et al., 2010).

⚫ Leadership development coaching recognizes the

impact managers have when interacting with
employees. Unfortunately, the difficulty with
coaching is that managers need to recognize
opportunities and verbalize them (Kaye,
1993).
Leadership
development
⚫ Coaching takes time and must be understood and accepted
by managers (Kaye, 1993) as it focuses on the one-on-one
relationship between the coach and the client (Ely et al.,
2010). Boyce, Jackson, and Neal (2010) suggest that the
quality of relationship between the trainer and the trainee is
the single most important factor for successful outcomes.
⚫ Northouse (2010) adds that leaders and followers are
involved together in the leadership process making it a two
dimensional relationship. Coaching takes place at work
where a manager or leader mentors the lessskilled protégé
(Amagoh, 2009).
⚫ The end goal is that the guidance provided should meet the
needs of the individual as well as those of the organization
(Ely et al., 2010).
Types of leadership
developmenet program
⚫ 1, Leadership coaching has become an integral
component of most leadership development
strategies (Boyce, Jackson, & Neal, 2010) and is a
component of leadership development but
distinguishable as it specifically focuses on the learner
(Ely et al., 2010). Leadership development coaching
recognizes the impact managers have when
interacting with employees. Unfortunately, the
difficulty with coaching is that managers need to
recognize opportunities and verbalize them (Kaye,
1993).
⚫ Coaching takes time and must be understood and
accepted by managers (Kaye, 1993) as it focuses on
the one-on-one relationship between the coach and
the client (Ely et al., 2010).
Leadership
development
⚫ Boyce, Jackson, and Neal (2010) suggest that
the quality of relationship between the trainer
and the trainee is the single most important
factor for successful outcomes. Northouse
(2010) adds that leaders and followers are
involved together in the leadership process
making it a two dimensional relationship.
⚫ Coaching takes place at work where a manager
or leader mentors the lessskilled protégé
(Amagoh, 2009). The end goal is that the
guidance provided should meet the needs of the
individual as well as those of the organization
(Ely et al., 2010).
Leadership
development
⚫ 2, Self-development leadership programs
⚫ are another variant of LDPs. Self-
development leadership training focuses on
learning experiences in which the leader
takes primary responsibility for their growth
in leadership capacities (Boyce, Zaccaro, &
Wisecarver, 2010).
⚫ The leader essentially decides what
knowledge, skills, and abilities they need to
improve upon and follow by choosing the
most appropriate method (Orvis & Ratwani,
2010).
Leadership
development
⚫ Boyce, Zaccaro, and Wisecarver (2010)
note how organizations are seeking
creative ways to continue this type of
training effectively because of changing
dynamics in the workplace as well as time
required for LDPs.
Leadership
development
⚫ Those most successful with this approach
usually have high levels of self-monitoring
and awareness (Avolio et al., 2010; Foti &
Hauenstein, 2007). Self-monitoring
individuals are sensitive to situational cues
(Foti & Hauenstein, 2007).
⚫ As financial constraints in the
may begin to limit formal
workplace
opportunities,
training self-
could receive additional
development LDPs
attention.
Leadership
development
⚫ Learning through personal experience is a common
element of many LDPs. Atwater, Dionne, Avolio,
Camobreco, and Lav (1999) note how learners use
life experiences to demonstrate influence on one
another.

⚫ The experiences of learners are discussed and

analyzed to provide a learning opportunity for all
involved. Leaders regularly struggle to receive desired
responses from subordinates and sometimes fail at
understanding why. In using past situations, learners
participating in LDPs critique what contributed to
their ineffective leadership moments.
Leadership
development
⚫ Learners are enabled to build from their experiences and
apply to future contexts Learning through personal
experience is a common element of many LDPs. Atwater,
Dionne, Avolio, Camobreco, and Lav (1999) note how
learners use life experiences to demonstrate influence on
one another.

⚫ The experiences of learners are discussed and analyzed to

provide a learning opportunity for all involved. Leaders
regularly struggle to receive desired responses from
subordinates and sometimes fail at understanding why. In
using past situations, learners participating in LDPs critique
what contributed to their ineffective leadership moments.
Learners are enabled to build from their experiences and
apply to future contexts
Leadership
development
⚫ Organizations will also utilize learning from others’
experiences when developing leaders. Antal (2013) describes
how one army leadership training program uses powerful
films as an education tool when developing soldiers into
leaders.

⚫ The films directly relate to situations where leaders made a

decision and demonstrate how those choices left an impact.
Afterwards, cadets conduct mock battles, mimicked by the
past leadership moments presented in the films, and apply
their learning into a real-life example.

⚫ Antal (2013) found this type of learning to be influential and

ultimately successful as leaders were able to see first-hand
and ultimately learn from others’ mistakes