CLASSIFICATION OF

RESEARCH

EDU 300
 INTRODUCTION
 Research comes in many shapes and sizes. Before
a researcher begins to conduct a study, he must
decide on a specific type of research. Good
researchers understand the advantages and
disadvantages of each type. In this lecture session
you will familiarize with;
 1. The purposes of doing research

 2. The intended uses/functions of research

 3. Research approach

 4. Research designs
Cont…
 1. Purpose of Doing Research
 the purposes of research may be organized into
three groups based on what the researcher is trying
to accomplish ­i. explore a new topic, ii. describe a
social phenomenon, or iii. explain why something
occurs.
 Studies may have multiple purposes (e.g. both to
explore and to describe) but one purpose usually
dominates.
2. The Uses/functions of Research

 Some researchers focus on using research to advance

general knowledge, whereas others use it to solve
specific problems.
 Those who seek an understanding of the fundamental
nature of social reality are engaged in basic research
(also called academic research or pure research or
fundamental research).
 Applied researchers, by contrast, primarily want to
apply and tailor knowledge to address a specific practical
issue. They want to answer a policy question or solve a
pressing social and economic problem.
Cont…
a. Basic Research
 Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the

human world.
 It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain

how this world operates, what makes things happen, why

social relations are a certain way, and why society changes.
 Basic research is the source of most new scientific ideas

and ways of thinking about the world.

 It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; however,

explanatory research is the most common.

Cont…
 Basic research generates new ideas, principles and
theories, which may not be immediately utilized;
though are the foundations of modern progress and
development in different fields.
 Today's computers could not exist without the pure
research in mathematics conducted over a century
ago, for which there was no known practical
application at that time.
Cont…
 Police officers trying to prevent delinquency or
counselors of youthful offenders may see little
relevance to basic research on the question, "Why
does deviant behavior occur?" Basic research rarely
helps practitioners directly with their everyday
concerns.
 Nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of thinking
about deviance that have the potential to
revolutionize and dramatically improve how
practitioners deal with a problem.
Cont…
 A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not
generated only by basic research. Applied research,
too, can build new knowledge.
 Nonetheless, basic research is essential for
nourishing the expansion of knowledge.
 Researchers at the center of the scientific
community conduct most of the basic research.
Cont….
 b. Applied Research
 Applied researchers try to solve specific policy
problems or help practitioners accomplish tasks.
Theory is less central to them than seeking a solution
on a specific problem for a limited setting.
 Applied research is frequently a descriptive research,
and its main strength is its immediate practical use.
 Applied research is conducted when decision must
be made about a specific real-life problem.
Cont…
 Applied research encompasses those studies
undertaken to answer questions about specific
problems or to make decisions about a particular
course of action or policy.
 For example, an organization contemplating a
paperless office and a networking system for the
company's personal computers may conduct
research to learn the amount of time its employees
spend at personal computers in an average week.
Cont…
 c. Basic and Applied Research Compared
 The procedures and techniques utilized by basic and
applied researchers do not differ substantially.
 Both employ the scientific method to answer the
questions at hand. The scientific community is the
primary consumer of basic research.
 The consumers of applied research findings are
practitioners such as teachers, counselors, and
caseworkers, or decision makers such as managers,
committees, and officials.
Cont…
 Often, someone other than the researcher who
conducted the study uses the results of applied
research.
 This means that applied researchers have an
obligation to translate findings from scientific
technical language into the language of decision
makers or practitioners.
 The results of applied research are less likely to
enter the public domain in publications.
Cont…
 Results may be available only to a small number of
decision makers or practitioners, who decide
whether or how to put the research results into
practice and who may or may not use the results.
 Applied and basic researchers adopt different
orientations toward research methodology.
 Basic researchers emphasize high standards and try
to conduct near-perfect research. Applied
researchers make more trade-offs.
Cont….
 They may compromise scientific rigor to get quick,
usable results. Compromise is no excuse for sloppy
research, however.
 Applied researchers squeeze research into the
constraints of an applied setting and balance rigor
against practical needs.
 Such balancing requires an in-depth knowledge of
research and an awareness of the consequences of
compromising standards
Differences
Basis for Basic Research Applied Research
Comparison

Basic Research Applied Research is

refers to the study the research that is
that is aimed at designed to solve
Meaning expanding the specific practical
existing base of problems or answer
scientific certain questions.
knowledge.

Nature Theoretical Practical

Differences
Basis for
Basic Research Applied Research
Comparison
Utility Universal Limited
Concerned Developing Development of
scientific knowledge technology and
with and predictions technique
To add some To find out solution
Goal knowledge to the for the problem at
existing one. hand.
Cont….

It targets the end result;

It lays the foundation for hence, it has a direct
applied research. It is, approach. It resolves the
Focus
thus, indirect in its problem with the help of
approach. information provided by basic
research.

It checks the effectiveness of

Strategy It plans the strategy.
the strategy.
Cont…
Focus It tries to explore the Its focus lies in
unknown while in answering specific
pursuit of searching for questions.
information.
Aim It aims at the expansion Its goal is to improve
of knowledge. It is human conditions. It
driven by curiosity, searches for
seeking knowledge knowledge with a
systematically and specific application in
methodically without its mind.
application in mind.
Cont…
 d. Types of Applied Research
 Practitioners use several types of applied research. Some of the
major ones are:
 i) Action research: The applied research that treats knowledge
as a form of power and abolishes the line between research and
social action.
 Those who are being studied participate in the research
process; research incorporates ordinary or popular knowledge;
research focuses on power with a goal of empowerment;
research seeks to raise consciousness or increase awareness;
and research is tied directly to political action.
Cont…

 The researchers try to advance a cause or improve conditions by

expanding public awareness.
 They are explicitly political, not value neutral. Because the goal
is to improve the conditions of research participants, formal
reports, articles, or books become secondary.
 Action researchers assume that knowledge develops from
experience, particularly the experience of social-political action.
 They also assume that ordinary people can become aware of
conditions and learn to take actions that can bring about
improvement.
Cont…
 ii) Impact Assessment Research: Its purpose is to
estimate the likely consequences of a planned change.
 Such an assessment is used for planning and making
choices among alternative policies ­to make an impact
assessment of Stigler Dam on the environment; to
determine changes in housing if a major new highway is
built.
 iii) Evaluation Research: It addresses the question, "Did
it work?" The process of establishing value judgment
based on evidence about the achievement of the goals of
a program.
Cont…
 Evaluation research measures the effectiveness of a
program, policy, or way of doing something. "Did
the program work?“ "Did it achieve its objectives?"
 Evaluation researchers use several research
techniques (survey, field research)
Cont…
 Practitioners involved with a policy or program
may conduct evaluation research for their own
information or at the request of outside decision
makers, who sometime place limits on researchers
by setting boundaries on what can be studied and
determining the outcome of interest.
Cont….
 Two types of evaluation research are formative
and summative. Formative evaluation is built-in
monitoring or continuous feedback on a program
used for program management.
 Summative evaluation looks at final program
outcomes. Both are usually necessary.
3. Research approach

 Every researcher collects data using one or more

techniques. The techniques may be grouped into two
categories: quantitative, collecting data in the form of
numbers, and qualitative, collecting data in the form of
words or pictures.
 Quantitative and qualitative methods refers to the
type of data being collected (quantitative data involve
numeric scores, metrics, and so on, while qualitative
data includes interviews, observations, and so forth)
and analyzed (i.e., using quantitative techniques such
as regression or qualitative techniques such as coding).
Cont…
 Positivist research uses predominantly quantitative
data, but Interpretive research relies heavily on
qualitative data.
 Qualitative and quantitative data may help generate
unique insight into a complex social phenomenon
that are not available from either types of data
alone, and hence, mixed-mode approach that
combine qualitative and quantitative data are
often highly desirable.
Cont….
 Hence on the other hand data collection methods
can also be broadly grouped into two categories:
positivist and interpretive.
 Positivist methods, such as laboratory
experiments and survey research, are aimed at
theory (or hypotheses) testing, while interpretive
methods, such as action research and ethnography,
are aimed at theory building.
Cont…
 Positivist methods employ a deductive approach to
research, starting with a theory and testing
theoretical postulates using empirical data.
 In contrast, interpretive methods employ an
inductive approach that starts with data and tries
to derive a theory about the phenomenon of interest
from the observed data.
a. Quantitative Research approach

 This type uses information or data expressed in

numerical values. Most experimental studies fall
under this type or category.
 Data collection methods include tests of various
types, experiments, questionnaire, rating scales etc.
 Quantitative data are analyzed using either
descriptive or inferential statistics.
b. Qualitative Research approach

 This type uses information which is verbal or non-

numerical. It makes use of qualitative data yielded
through interviews, observations, artifacts,
documentary sources, audio and visual materials
among others.
 Information could be analysed using transcription,
coding, historical and philosophical analysis.
 This can introduce elements of subjectivity in
explaining, describing, collecting and even
analyzing information.
Cont…
 Involve a researcher describing kinds of
characteristics of people and events.
 Qualitative researchers study things in their natural
settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret
phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to
them.
 Examples of qualitative research include: Historical,
Phenomenological, Case Studies, Ethnographic
Research, Action research and Guided inquiry
Differences
 Quantitative research consists of those studies in
which the data concerned can be analysed in terms
of numbers ...while ….. Research can also be
qualitative, that is, it can describe events, persons
and so forth scientifically without the use of
numerical data ...
Cont…
 Quantitative research is based more directly on its
original plans and its results are more readily
analysed and interpreted While Qualitative
research is more open and responsive to its subject.
 Both types of research are valid and useful. They
are not mutually exclusive. It is possible for a
single investigation to use both methods.
 Qualitative research is harder, more stressful and
more time-consuming than other types.
Cont…
 If you want to get your dissertation or whatever
finished quickly and easily do a straightforward
questionnaire study.
 Qualitative research is only suitable for people who
care about it, take it seriously, and are prepared for
commitment
 Quantitative research is, as the term suggests,
concerned with the collection and analysis of data
in numeric form.
Cont…
 It tends to emphasize relatively large-scale and
representative sets of data, and is often, falsely in
our view, presented or perceived as being about the
gathering of `facts'.
 Qualitative research, on the other hand, is
concerned with collecting and analysing
information in as many forms, chiefly non-numeric,
as possible.
Cont…
 It tends to focus on exploring, in as much detail as
possible, smaller numbers of instances or examples
which are seen as being interesting or illuminating,
and aims to achieve `depth' rather than `breadth'.
 Quantitative research is empirical research where
the data are in the form of numbers.
 Qualitative research is empirical research where
the data are not in the form of numbers.
Cont…
 The main quantitative techniques are Experiments,
Surveys, Content Analysis and Using Existing
Statistics while major qualitative techniques of
research are Field Research, Case Study, Focus
Group Discussion and interviews.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH KEY CHARACTERISTICS

i. Events can be understood adequately only if they are

seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher
immerses her/himself in the setting.
ii. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are
natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
iii. The qulitatitive research process is interactive,
Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to
speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in
words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research
is an interactive process in which the persons studied
teach the researcher about their lives.
Cont…
i. Qualitative researchers attend to the experience
as a whole, not as separate variables. The aim of
qualitative research is to understand experience
as unified.
ii. Qualitative methods are appropriate to the above
statements. There is no one general method.
iii. For many qualitative researchers, the process
entails appraisal about what was studied.
Cont…
 Ely et al add the following from Sherman and
Webb (1988) to their definition:
 Qualitative implies a direct concern with
experience as it is `lived' or `felt' or `undergone' ...
Qualitative research, then, has the aim of
understanding experience as nearly as possible as
its participants feel it or live it.
LIMITATIONS OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH

I. The problem of adequate validity or reliability is

a major criticism. Because of the subjective
nature of qualitative data and its origin in single
contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional
standards of reliability and validity.
II. Contexts, situations, events, conditions and
interactions cannot be replicated to any extent nor
can generalisations be made to a wider context
than the one studied with any confidence.
Cont…
iii. The time required for data collection, analysis and
interpretation is lengthy.
iv. Researcher's presence has a profound effect on the
subjects of study.
v. Issues of anonymity and confidentiality present
problems when selecting findings.
v. The viewpoints of both researcher and participants
have to be identified and illuminated because of
issues of bias.
STRENGTHS

 1. Because of close researcher involvement, the

researcher gains an insider's view of the field. This
allows the researcher to find issues that are often
missed by the quantitative, positivistic enquiries.
 2· Qualitative descriptions/studies can play the
important role of suggesting possible relationships,
causes, effects and dynamic processes.
Cont…
3. Because statistics are not used, (descriptive,
narrative style,) this research might be of particular
benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to
qualitative reports in order to examine forms of
knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable,
thereby gaining new insight.
4. Qualitative research adds flesh and blood to social
analysis.
Differences
Criteria Qualitative Quantitative Research
Research
Purpose To understand & To test hypotheses,
interpret social look at cause & effect,
interactions. & make predictions.
Group Smaller & not Larger & randomly
Studied randomly selected. selected
Variables Study of the whole, Specific variables
not variables. studied

Type of Data Words, images, or Numbers and

Collected objects. statistics.
Differences
Criteria Qualitative Quantitative Research
Research
Type of Data Identify patterns, features, Identify statistical relationships
Analysis themes.

Objectivity and Subjectivity is expected. Objectivity is critical.

Subjectivity

Researcher & their biases Researcher & their biases are

Role of may be known to not known to participants in
Researcher participants in the study, the study, & participant
& participant characteristics are
characteristics may be deliberately hidden from the
known to the researcher. researcher (double blind
studies).
Differences
Criteria Qualitative Quantitative Research
Research
Form of Qualitative data Quantitative data based
Data such as open- on precise
Collected ended responses, measurements using
interviews, structured & validated
participant data collection
observations, field instruments
notes, &
reflections.
Differences
Criteria Qualitative Quantitative Research
Research
Particular or specialized Generalizable findings that
Results findings that is less can be applied to other
generalizable. populations.
Scientific Method Exploratory or bottom– Confirmatory or top-
up: the researcher down: the researcher tests
generates a new the hypothesis and theory
hypothesis and theory with the data.
from the data collected.

View of Human Dynamic, situational, Regular & predictable

Behavior social, & personal.
Differences
Criteria Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Most Common Explore, discover, & Describe, explain, & predict

Research construct.
Objectives
Focus Wide-angle lens; examines Narrow-angle lens; tests a
the breadth & depth of specific hypotheses.
phenomena.
Nature of Study behavior in a natural Study behavior under
Observation environment. controlled conditions; isolate
causal effects.
Differences
Criteria Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Nature of Multiple realities; Single reality; objective

Reality subjective.

Narrative report with Statistical report with

Final Report contextual description & correlations, comparisons of
direct quotations from means, & statistical
research participants. significance of findings.
Strengths and Use of Quantitative Methods

 Quantitative researchers try to recognize and

isolate specific variables contained within the study
framework, seek correlation, relationships and
causality, and attempt to control the environment in
which the data is collected to avoid the risk of
variables, other than the one being studied,
accounting for the relationships identified.
Strengths of using quantitative methods :

 1. Allows for a broader study, involving a greater

number of subjects, and enhancing the generalization of
the results;
 2. Allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results.
Generally, quantitative methods are designed to provide
summaries of data that support generalizations about the
phenomenon under study. In order to accomplish this,
quantitative research usually involves few variables and
many cases, and employs prescribed procedures to
ensure validity and reliability;
CONT…
 3. Applying well-establshed standards means that
the research can be replicated, and then analyzed
and compared with similar studies;
 4. It allows the research to summarize vast sources

of information and make comparisons across

categories and time; and,
5. Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a
'distance' from participating subjects and using
accepted computational techniques.
Limitations OF using quantitative methods

 1. Quantitative data is more efficient and able to

test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail;
 2. Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs
an inflexible process of discovery;
 3. The development of standard questions by
researchers can lead to "structural bias" and false
representation, where the data actually reflects the
view of the researcher instead of the participating
subject;
CONT…
 5. Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes,
and motivation;
 6. Researcher may collect a much narrower and
sometimes superficial dataset;
 7. Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how
people really feel about a subject and, in some
cases, might just be the closest match to the
preconceived hypothesis.
Cont…
 Results are limited as they provide numerical
descriptions rather than detailed narrative and
generally provide less elaborate accounts of human
perception;
8. The research is often carried out in an unnatural,
artificial environment so that a level of control can
be applied to the exercise. This level of control
might not normally be in place in the real world
thus yielding "laboratory results" as opposed to
"real world results"; and,
Strengths of using qualitative methods

 1. Obtain a more realistic view of the lived world

that cannot be understood or experienced in
numerical data and statistical analysis;
 2. Provide the researcher with the perspective of
the participants of the study through immersion in a
culture or situation and as a result of direct
interaction with them;
 3. Allow the researcher to describe existing
phenomena and current situations;
CONT…
 4. Develop flexible ways to perform data
collection, subsequent analysis, and interpretation
of collected information;
 5. Yield results that can be helpful in pioneering
new ways of understanding;
 6. Respond to changes that occur while conducting
the study ]e.g., extended fieldwork or observation]
and offer the flexibility to shift the focus of the
research as a result;
Cont…
 7. Provide a holistic view of the phenomena under
investigation;
 8. Respond to local situations, conditions, and
needs of participants;
 9. Interact with the research subjects in their own
language and on their own terms; and,
 10. Create a descriptive capability based on
primary and unstructured data.
CONT….
 In short using qualitative methods a researcher
generate rich, detailed data that leave the
participants' perspectives intact and provide
multiple contexts for understanding the
phenomenon under study. In this way, qualitative
research can be used to vividly demonstrate
phenomena or to conduct cross-case comparisons
and analysis of individuals or groups.
Cont….
 It is very much true that most of the limitations
you find in using qualitative research techniques
also reflect their inherent strengths.
 For example, small sample sizes help you
investigate research problems in a comprehensive
and in-depth manner.
Cont…
 However, small sample sizes undermine
opportunities to draw useful generalizations from, or
to make broad policy recommendations based upon,
the findings.
 Additionally, as the primary instrument of
investigation, qualitative researchers are often
imbedded in the cultures and experiences of others.
 However, cultural embeddedness increases the
opportunity for bias to enter into the way data is
gathered, interpreted, and reported
Limitations associated with using qualitative methods :

 1. Drifting away from the original objectives of the

study in response to the changing nature of the
context under which the research is conducted;
 2. Arriving at different conclusions based on the
same information depending on the personal
characteristics of the researcher;
CONT…
 3. Replicatication of a study is very difficult;
 4. Research using human subjects increases the
chance of ethical dilemmas that undermine the
overall validity of the study;
 5. An inability to investigate causality between
different research phenomena;
CONT…
 6. Difficulty in explaining differences in the quality
and quantity of information obtained from different
respondents and arriving at different, non-
consistent conclusions;
 7. Data gathering and analysis is often time
consuming and/or expensive;
 8. Requires a high level of experience from the
researcher to obtain the targeted information from
the respondent;
CONT..
 9. May lack consistency and reliability because the
researcher can employ different probing techniques
and the respondent can choose to tell some
particular stories and ignore others; and,
 10. Generation of a significant amount of data that
cannot be randomized into managable parts for
analysis.
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE APPROACHES:
WHICH TO CHOOSE?

SIX FACTORS TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT

 1. Research Questions: What exactly are you trying to

find out? Focus on the `exactly' as this can lead you either
into the quantitative or qualitative direction.
 2. Are we interested in making standardized and

systematic comparisons or do we really want to study

this phenomenon or situation in detail?
 3. The Literature: How have other researchers dealt with

this topic? To what extent do you wish to align your own

research with standard approaches to the topic?
Cont…
 4. Practical Considerations: Issues of time, money,
availability of samples and data, familiarity with the subject
under study, access to situations, gaining co-operation.
 5. Knowledge payoff: Will we learn more about this topic
using quantitative or qualitative approaches? Which
approach will produce more useful knowledge? Which will
do more good?
 6. Preference Style: Some people prefer one to the other.
This may involve paradigm and philosophical issues or
different images about what a good piece of research looks
like.
Mixed-Method approach

 Mixed-Method Design focuses on collecting,

analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and
qualitative data in a single study or series of
studies. Its central premise is that the use of
quantitative and qualitative approaches, in
combination, provides a better understanding of
research problems than either approach alone.”
Characteristics Of Mixed Methods Research

 The analysis of both qualitative and quantitative

data.
 The collection of both open and closed-ended data
(qualitative and quantitative data) in response to
research question.
The main rationales proposed for
mixed methods

 Triangulation: this allows for greater validity

in a study by seeking corroboration between
quantitative and qualitative data.
 Completeness: using a combination of
research approaches provides a more complete
and comprehensive picture of the study
phenomenon.
Cont….
 Offsetting weaknesses and providing stronger
inferences: many authors argue that utilising a
mixed methods can allow for the limitations of
each approach to be neutralised while
strengths are built upon thereby providing
stronger and more accurate inferences.
CONT…
 4. Answering different research questions:
mixed methods research helps answer the
research questions that cannot be answered by
quantitative or qualitative methods alone and
provides a greater repertoire of tools to meet
the aims and objectives of a study.
ELEVEN WAYS TO COMBINE QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 1. Logic of triangulation. The findings from one

type of study can be checked against the findings
deriving from the other type. For example the
results of a qualitative investigation might be
checked against a quantitative study.
 2. Qualitative research facilitates quantitative
research. Qualitative research may: help to provide
background information on context and subjects;
act as a source of hypotheses; aid scale
construction.
Cont….
 3. Quantitative research facilitates qualitative
research. Usually this means quantitative research
helping with the choice of subjects for a qualitative
investigation.
 4. Quantitative and qualitative research are combined
in order to provide a general picture. Quantitative
research may be employed to plug the gaps in a
qualitative study which arise because, for example the
researcher cannot be in more than one place at any one
time. Or if not all issues are amenable solely to a
quantitative or a qualitative investigation.
CONT…
 5. Structure and process. Quantitative research is
especially efficient at getting at the structural
features of social life while qualitative studies are
usually stronger on process aspects.
 6. Researchers' and subjects' perspectives.
Quantitative research is usually driven by the
researcher's concerns, whereas qualitative research
takes the subject's perspective.
 7. Problem of generality. The addition of some
quantitative evidence may help generalizability.
Cont…
 8. Qualitative research may facilitate the
interpretation of relationships between variables.
Quantitative research readily allows the researcher
to establish relationships among variables, but is
often weak when it comes to exploring the reasons
for those relationships. A qualitative study can be
used to explain the factors underlying the broad
relationships.
Cont…
 9. Relationship between macro and micro levels.
Employing both quantitative and qualitative research
may provide a means of bridging the macro-micro gulf.
Qualitative research can tap large-scale structural
features of social life while qualitative research tends
to address small-scale behavioural aspects.
 10. Stage in the research process. Use at different
stages of a longitudinal study.
 11. Hybrids. Use of qualitative research is a quasi-
experimental quantitative study.
Strengths of the Mixed Methods Research

 Mixed methods research can be used to increase

the generalising of the results.
 Researcher can provide stronger evidence for a
conclusion through convergence and corroboration
of findings.
 Researcher can add insights and understanding that
might be missed only a single method is used.
 Provides the strengths of both qualitative and
quantitative research.
Cont…
 Researcher can answer a broader and more
complete range of research question because he is
not confined to single method or approach.
 Words, pictures and narrative can be used to add
meaning to numbers and numbers can be used to
add precision to words and narrative.
 Lastly, qualitative and quantitative research used
together produce more complete knowledge
necessary to inform theory and practice.
Weaknesses of Mixed Method Research

 Researcher has to learn about multiple methods and

approaches and understand how to mix them
appropriately.
 It can be difficult for a single researcher to carry out both
qualitative and quantitative research, especially if two or
more approaches are expected to be used concurrently, it
may require a research team.
 It is more time consuming.
 Methodological purists contend that one should always
work within either a qualitative or a quantitative
paradigm.
4. RESEARCH DESIGNS
 A research design describes the procedures for
conducting the study, including when, from whom,
and under what conditions the data will be
obtained. In other words, the research design
indicates the general plan: how the research is set
up, what happens to the subjects, and what methods
of data collection are used.
 The purpose of a research design is to specify a
plan for generating empirical evidence that will be
used to answer the research questions.
Cont…
 The intent is to use a design that will result in
drawing the most valid, credible conclusions from
the answers to the research questions. Because there
are many types of research questions and many types
of research designs, it is important to match the
question to an appropriate design.
 Research design is very important because certain
limitations and cautions in interpreting the results are
related to each design and because the research
design determines how the data should be analyzed.
Cont…
 Quantitative: under this approach to research there
are experimental and non-experimental designs.
 1. Experimental designs: In this mode of scientific
enquiry, there is a search for cause and effect
relationship between variables; the cause is the
event being changed or manipulated while the
effect is the behavior that changes because of the
manipulation.
Cont…
 In an experimental design, the researcher intervenes
with a procedure that determines what the subjects will
experience. In other words, the investigator has some
control over what will happen to the subjects by
systematically imposing or withholding specified
interventions.
Cont…
 The researcher then makes comparisons either (1)
between subjects who have had and others who have
not had the interventions or (2) between subjects who
have experienced different interventions.
 An experimental design also has a particular purpose
in mind: to investigate cause-and-effect relationships
between interventions and measured outcomes.
Cont…
Terminologies used in experimental design
1. Treatment
 In experiments, a treatment is something that researchers

administer to experimental units.

 For example, a corn field is divided into four, each part is

'treated' with a different fertiliser to see which produces

the most corn; a teacher practices different teaching
methods on different groups in her class to see which
yields the best results; a doctor treats a patient with a skin
condition with different creams to see which is most
effective.
Cont…
2. Random assignment VS Random sampling
refers to the use of chance procedures in
experimental research to ensure that each participant
has the same opportunity to be assigned to any given
group. Study participants are randomly assigned to
different groups, such as the experimental
group/treatment group. Random assignment might
involve tactics such as flipping a coin, drawing
names out of a hat, rolling dice, or assigning random
numbers to participants.
Cont…
 Random assignment plays an important role in the
psychology research process. Not only does this
process help eliminate possible sources of bias,2
but it also makes it easier to generalize the results
of a tested sample population to a larger
population. Random assignment helps ensure that
members of each group in the experiment are the
same, which means that the groups are also likely
more representative of what is present in the larger
population.
Cont…
3. Factor: A factor of an experiment is a controlled
independent variable; a variable whose levels are set by
the experimenter. A factor is a general type or category
of treatments. Different treatments constitute different
levels of a factor. For example, three different groups
of runners are subjected to different training methods.
 The runners are the experimental units, the training

methods, the treatments, where the three types of

training methods constitute three levels of the factor
'type of training'.
Cont…
4. Experimental groups Vs control group
An experimental group is a group in which
members of the group are exposed to independent
variable manipulation.
A control group is a comparison group that is treated
in every way like the experimental group except the
manipulated variable is absent in it.
Cont…
 In addition, experimental research as a scientific
enquiry has two main fundamental characteristics;
the first is manipulation (the researcher
manipulates or systematically varies the level of the
independent variable by giving the special
treatment to the experimental subject or group), the
second is control (the researcher controls, or
minimizes the variability in the variable that can
affect the study other than the independent and
dependent variables).
Cont…
 For instance, research is conducted to investigate if
the use of a certain teaching method (e.g. enquiry,
problem-based method, lecture etc.) can affect
student performance (measured through tests).
 In this example teaching method is the independent
variable, the researcher can manipulate these
methods to see if the students will perform
differently
Cont…
 While manipulating independent and dependent
variables the researcher has to control other
variables like teaching styles, teacher variability,
student motivation etc. that may affect the
dependent variable (student performance).
Cont…
 Types of experimental design are
 1.True Experimental. The unique characteristic of
a true experimental design is that there is random
assignment of subjects to different groups. With
random assignment, every subject used in the study
has an equal chance of being in each group.
Cont…
 This procedure, when carried out with a large enough
sample, helps ensure that there are no major
differences between subjects in each group before
intervention begins. This enables the researcher to
conclude that the results are not due to differences in
characteristics of the subjects or to most extraneous
events.
Cont…
 2. Quasi-Experimental. A quasi-experimental
design approximates the true experimental type.
The purpose of the method is the same—to
determine cause and effect—and there is an
intervention controlled by the experimenters.
However, there is no random assignment of
subjects. A common situation for implementing
quasi-experimental research involves several
classes or schools that can be used to determine the
effect of curricular materials or teaching methods.
Cont…
 The classes are intact, or already organized for an
instructional purpose. The classes are not assigned
randomly and have different teachers. It is possible,
however, to give an intervention to some of the classes and
treat other classes as the “control group.”
Cont…
 Single-Subject- research in education has been
influenced heavily by a tradition in which groups of
subjects, rather than individuals, are studied. i.e one or
a few participants involved in a research. In many
situations, however, it is impossible or inconvenient to
study entire groups of subjects. Furthermore, the
researcher may be interested in one or two subjects,
not large groups of subjects.
Cont…
 Single-subject designs offer an alternative by
specifying methods that can be used with a single
individual or just a few subjects and still allow
reasonable cause-and-effect conclusions. Similar to
quasi-experimental research, there is an intervention
but no random assignment
Nonexperimental Designs
 Nonexperimental research designs describe
phenomena and examine relationships between
different phenomena without any direct
manipulation of conditions that are experienced.
 There are six types of nonexperimental designs:
descriptive, comparative, correlational, survey, ex
post facto, and secondary data analysis.
Cont…
 Descriptive Research using a descriptive design
simply provides a summary of an existing
phenomenon by using numbers to characterize
individuals or groups.
 It assesses the nature of existing conditions. The
purpose of most descriptive research is limited to
characterizing something as it is.
Cont…
 Descriptive research presents a picture of the
specific details of a situation, social setting, or
relationship.
 The major purpose of descriptive research, as the
term implies, is to describe characteristics of a
population or phenomenon.
Cont…
 Descriptive research seeks to determine the answers to
who, what, when, where, and how questions. Labor
Force Surveys, and Population Census are examples
 Descriptive study offers to the researcher a profile or
description of relevant aspects of the phenomena of
interest.
 Look at the class in research methods and try to give
its profile ­the characteristics of the students.
 When we start to look at the relationship of the
variables, then it may help in diagnosis analysis.
Goals of Descriptive Research

1. Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics

i.e. provide an accurate profile of a group;
2. Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the
situation;
3. Present background information;
4. Create a set of categories or classify the
information;
Cont…
5. Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
6. Focus on `who,' `what,' `when,' `where,' and `how'
but not why?
 A great deal of social research is descriptive.

 Descriptive researchers use most data ­gathering

techniques ­surveys, field research, and content

analysis, Observational Method, Survey method
and case studies
Distinctive characteristics of descriptive research

 Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a

quantitative research method that attempts to
collect quantifiable information to be used for
statistical analysis of the population sample.
 It is an popular market research tool that allows to
collect and describe the nature of the demographic
segment.
Cont…
 Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research,
none of the variables are influenced in any way.
 This uses observational methods to conduct the
research.
 Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior
is not in the hands of the researcher
Cont…
 Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is
generally a cross-sectional study where different
sections belonging to the same group are studied.
 Basis for further research: The data collected and
analyzed from descriptive research can then be
further researched using different research
techniques
Application of descriptive research
 Define respondent characteristics: The aim of
using close-ended questions is to draw concrete
conclusions about the respondents. This could be
the need to derive patterns, traits and behaviors of
the respondents.
 It could also be to understand from a respondent,
their attitude or opinion about the phenomenon in
question.
Cont…
 Measure data trends: Data trends can be
measured over time with statistical capabilities
provided by descriptive research.
 Validate existing conditions: Descriptive research
is widely used to help ascertain the prevailing
conditions and underlying patterns of the research
object.
Cont…
 Conduct comparisons: schools also use
descriptive research to understand how different
groups respond to a certain product or service.
 Conduct research at different times: To ascertain
if there are any similarities or differences, the
research can be conducted at different periods of
times. This also allows any number of variables to
be evaluated. For the purpose of verification,
studies on prevailing conditions can also be
repeated to draw trends.
Advantages of Descriptive Research
 Data collection: Descriptive research can be conducted by
using specific methods like observational method, case
study method and survey method. Between these 3, all
major methods of data collection are covered which
provides a lot of information. This can be used for future
research or even developing hypothesis of your research
object.
 Varied: Since the data collected is both qualitative and
quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding of a research
topic. This causes data that was not planned to be collected
gets tracked and the data is varied, diverse and thorough
Cont…
 Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for
the research to be conducted in the natural environment
of the respondent and this ensures that high-quality and
honest data is collected.
 Quick to conduct and cheap: As the sample size is
generally large in descriptive research, the data
collection is quick to conduct and is cheap.
 Forms basis for decision-making: As the data collected
in descriptive research represents a larger population and
is robust, it is easy to make decisions on the basis of the
statistical analysis of that data.
Disadvantages of Descriptive Research

 Confidentiality: Respondents aren’t always

truthful if questions are too personal or they feel
that they are being “watched”. This may negate the
validity of the data.
 Halo effect: If the research observer has a potential
bias towards the research topic or some
respondents in the research, the observations then
maybe considered as invalid or untrue.
Cont…
 Sample isn’t representative: Due to the
randomness of the sample, it is very tough to
validate that the sample is an accurate
representation of the whole population.
 No scope to learn cause: Since descriptive
research only focuses on the “what” of an objective
or phenomenon, it does not delve into the “why or
how” and that is a limitation in learning specific
causes.
Cont…
 The results from a descriptive research cannot be
used to discover a definitive answer or to disprove
a hypothesis.
 Because descriptive designs often utilize
observational methods [as opposed to quantitative
methods], the results cannot be replicated.
 The descriptive function of research is heavily
dependent on instrumentation for measurement and
observation.
Cont…
 Comparative. This design is used to compare past
and present or different parallel situations,
particularly when the researcher has no control
over events. In a comparative design, the
researcher investigates whether there are
differences between two or more groups on the
phenomena being studied.
 As with descriptive designs, there is no
intervention; even so, the comparative approach
takes descriptive studies a step further.
Cont…

 For example, rather than simply describe pupils’ attitudes

toward discipline, a comparative study could investigate
whether attitudes differ by grade level or gender
 Another example would be to compare the grades of
athletes and nonathletes. Often, comparative modes of
inquiry are used to study relationships between different
phenomena, for example, the relationship between
participation in athletics (yes or no) and grade-point
average.
Cont…
 Correlational. This design is used to examine a
relationship between two concepts. There are two
broad classifications of relational statements: an
association between two concepts – where there is
some kind of influence of one on the other; and a
causal relationship – where one causes changes to
occur in the other. Causal statements describe what
is sometimes called a ‘cause and effect’
relationship.
Cont…
 The cause is referred to as the ‘independent variable’, the
variable that is affected is referred to as the ‘dependent
variable’. Correlational research is concerned with assessing
relationships between two or more phenomena. This type of
study usually involves a statistical measure of the degree of
relationship, called correlation.

 The correlation between two concepts can either be none (no

correlation); positive (where an increase in one results in the
increase in the other, or decrease results in a decrease); or
negative (where the increase in one results in the decrease in
the other or vice versa).
Cont…
 The relationship measured is a statement about the
degree of association between the variables of
interest.

 The strength and direction of the relationship

between the two variables under investigations are
represented by a number, known as correlation
coefficient, and its values range from + 1.0 to – 1.0.
Cont…
 The correlation coefficient can be divided into three
types: a positive correlation which indicates that as
the value of one variable (X) is increasing; the value
of the other variable (Y) is also increasing and vice
versa is true.

 For instance, assume it is found that the more the

time spent by the students on studying, the higher
their achievement and the less the time spent by the
student the lower their achievement; this type of
association is called positive correlation.
Cont…
 A negative correlation coefficient means as
variable (X) increase, the other variable is
decreasing (for instance, the higher the level of
fatigue the lower the level of performance).

 Examples of negative correlations include those

between absence from school and school
achievement.
Cont…
 Finally, the zero correlation coefficient happens
when the two variables are not related to each other
(this happens when the correlation coefficient
approaches zero).
 As you approach +1.0 or -1.0 it indicates the
strong correlation (it can be a strong negative or
strong positive correlation) and when approaching
0 this means the low correlation (it can be low
positive or negative correlation).
Cont…
 However, the presence of an association or
correlation between two variables or more doesn’t
mean a causal-effect relationship (the cause and
effect relationship); this doesn’t mean that one
variable can cause the other variable.
Cont…
 Survey. In a survey research design, the
investigator selects a sample of subjects and
administers a questionnaire or conducts interviews
to collect data. Surveys are used frequently in
educational research to describe attitudes, beliefs,
opinion, information.
 Usually, the research is designed so that
information about a large number of people (the
population) can be inferred from the responses
obtained from a smaller group of subjects (the
sample).
Cont…
 Ex Post Facto. An ex post facto design is used to
explore possible causal relationships among variables that
cannot be controlled by the researcher. The investigator
designs the study to compare two or more samples that are
comparable except for a specified factor that occurred in the
past.

 The possible causes are studied after they have occurred.

Rather than control what will happen to subjects, as in
experimental designs, the research focuses on what has
happened differently for comparable groups of subjects, then
explores whether the subjects in each group are different in
some way.
The Time Dimension in Research
 Time dimension of research is the treatment of
time. Some studies give us a snapshot of a single,
fixed time point and allow us to analyze it in detail.
 Other studies provide a moving picture that lets us
follow events, people, or sale of products over a
period of time.
 In this way from the angle of time research could
be divided into two broad types/designs:
Cont…
 a. Cross-Sectional Research. In cross-sectional
research, researchers observe at one point in time.
Cross-sectional research is usually the simplest and
least costly alternative. Its disadvantage is that it
cannot capture the change processes.
 Cross-sectional research can be exploratory,
descriptive, or explanatory, but it is most consistent
with a descriptive approach to research.
Cont…
 Cross-sectional study is a research tool used to
capture information based on data gathered for a
specific point in time. The data gathered is from a
pool of participants with varied characteristics and
demographics known as variables.
 Age, gender, income, education, geographical
locations, and ethnicity are all examples of
variables.
Cont…
 The variables, or demographics, used in a single
study are based on the type of research being
conducted and on what the study aims to prove or
validate.
 The research findings help remove assumptions
and replace them with actual data on the specific
variables studied during the time period accounted
for in the cross-sectional study.
Cont…
 Cross-sectional research designs have three
distinctive features:
I. no time dimension;
II. a reliance on existing differences rather than
change following intervention;
III. groups are selected based on existing differences
rather than random allocation
Advantages of Cross-Sectional
Study
i. Used to prove and/or disprove assumptions
ii. Not costly to perform and does not require a lot
of time
iii. Captures a specific point in time
iv. Contains multiple variables at the time of the data
snapshot
v. The data can be used for various types of research
vi. Many findings and outcomes can be analyzed to
create new theories/studies or in-depth research
Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional Study

 The disadvantages of cross-sectional study include:

 Cannot be used to analyze behavior over a period to
time
 Does not help determine cause and effect
 The timing of the snapshot is not guaranteed to be
representative
Cont…
 The cross-sectional design can only measure
differences between or from among a variety of
people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a
process of change.
b. Longitudinal Research.
 A longitudinal study is a research design that
involves repeated observations of the same variables
over short or long periods of time.
 It follows the same sample over time and makes
repeated observations.
 For example, with longitudinal surveys, the same
group of people is interviewed at regular intervals,
enabling researchers to track changes over time and
to relate them to variables that might explain why
the changes occur.
Cont…
 Longitudinal studies are a method of observational
research. In this type of study, data is gathered from
the same subjects repeatedly over a defined period.
 Because of this structure, it is possible for a
longitudinal study to last for several years or even
several decades. This form of research is common
in the areas of sociology, psychology, and
medicine.
Cont…
 The primary advantage of using this form of research is
that it can help find patterns that may occur over long
periods, but would not be observed over short periods.
Changes can be tracked so that cause and effect
relationships can be discovered.

 The primary disadvantage of using longitudinal studies

for research is that long-term research increases the
chances of unpredictable outcomes. If the same people
cannot be found for a study update, then the research
ceases.
Cont…
 Researchers using longitudinal research examine
features of people or other units at more than one
time.
 It is usually more complex and costly than cross-
sectional research but it is also more powerful,
especially when researchers seek answers to
questions about change.
 There are three types of longitudinal research: time
series, panel, and cohort.
Cont…
 Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of
change and help establish the direction and
magnitude of causal relationships.

 Measurements are taken on each variable over two

or more distinct time periods. This allows the
researcher to measure change in variables over
time.
Advantages of Longitudinal Studies
 1. It allows for high levels of validity.
For a long-term study to be successful, there must
be rules and regulations in place at the beginning
that dictate the path that researchers must follow.
The end goal of the research must be defined at the
beginning of the process as well, with outlined
steps in place that verify the authenticity of the data
being collected. This means high levels of data
validity are often available through longitudinal
studies.
Cont…
 2. The data collected is unique.
Most research studies will collect short-term data to
determine the cause-and-effect of what is being
researched. Longitudinal studies follow the same
principles, but extend the timeframe for data
collection on a dramatic scale.
 Long-term relationships cannot be discovered in
short-term research, but short-term relationships
can be tracked in long-term research.
Cont…
 3. Most will use the observational method.
Because longitudinal studies will use the
observational method for data collection more
often than not, it is easier to collect consistent data
at a personal level.
 This consistency allows for differences to be
excluded on a personal level, making it easier to
exclude variations that could affect data outcomes
in other research methods.
Cont…
 4. It makes it possible to identify developmental
trends.
Whether in medicine, psychology, or sociology, the
long-term design of a longitudinal study makes it
possible to find trends and relationships within the data
collected. It isn’t just the span of a human life that can
be tracked with this type of research. Multiple
generations can have real-time data collected and
analyzed to find trends. Observational changes can also
be made from past data so it can be applied to future
outcomes.
Cont…
 5. Data collection accuracy is almost always
high.
Because data is collected in real-time using
observational data, the collection process is almost
always accurate. Humans are fallible beings, so
mistakes are always possible, but the structure of
this research format limits those mistakes.
 That data can also be used to implement necessary
changes that a course of action may need to take so
the best possible outcome can be identified.
Cont…
 6. Longitudinal studies can be designed for flexibility.

Although a longitudinal study may be created to study

one specific data point, the collected data may show
unanticipated patterns or relationships that may be
meaningful. Because this is a long-term study, there is a
flexibility available to researchers that is not available in
other research formats. Additional data points can be
collected to study the unanticipated findings, allowing
for shifts in focus to occur whenever something
interesting is found.
Disadvantages of Longitudinal Studies

 1. There is a factor of unpredictability always

present.
Because longitudinal studies involve the same subjects
over a long period, what happens to them outside of the
data collection moments can influence future data being
collected.
 Some people may choose to stop participating in the
research. Others may no longer find themselves in the
correct demographics for the research. If these factors
are not included in the initial design of the research, then
it could invalidate the findings that are produced.
Cont…
 2. It takes time.
Researchers involved with longitudinal studies may
never see the full outcome of their work. It may
take several years before the data begins producing
observable patterns or relationships that can be
tracked. That means the ability to maintain open
lines of communication with all researchers is
vitally important to the eventual success of the
study.
Cont…
 3. The data gathered by longitudinal studies is
not always accurate or reliable.
It only takes one piece of unreliable or inaccurate
data to possibly invalidate the findings that the
longitudinal studies produce. Because humans have
their own personal bias toward certain subjects, the
researcher processing the data may unconsciously
alter the data to produce intended results.
Cont…
 4. It relies on the skills of the researchers to be
complete.
Because data collection occurs in real-time and relies
heavily on the skills of the researchers who are tasked
with this job, the quality of the data is heavily reliant on
those skills.
 Two different researchers with varying skill levels can
produce very different data points from the same
subject material. Personal views of the data being
collected can also impact the results on both ends, from
the subject or the collector.
Cont…
 5. Large sample sizes are required to make the
research meaningful.
To develop relationships or patterns, a large amount
of data must be collected and then mined to create
results. That means a large sample size is required
so the amount of data being collected can meet
expectations.
 When the subjects being studied are people, it can
be difficult to find enough people who are willing
to honestly participate in the longitudinal studies.
Cont…
 6. There is a direct cost that is higher than other
forms of research.
Longitudinal research requires a larger sample size,
which means there is a larger cost involved in
contacting subjects to collect data. It is also a long-
term form of research, which means the costs of the
study will be extended for years, or decades, when
other forms of research may be completed in a
fraction of that time.
Cont…
 7. One person can change a long-term outcome.
Because there is such a reliance on individual
interpretations within longitudinal studies, it is
possible for one person to inadvertently alter or
invalidate the data being collected.
 It is entirely possible for decades of research to be
invalidated because one subject or researcher was
misleading.
Types of Longitudinal
i. Time series/trend survey research is longitudinal study in
which the same type of information is collected on a group
of people or other units across multiple time periods.
 Researcher can observe stability or change in the features

of the units or can track conditions overtime.

 One could track the characteristics of students registering

in Education degree programme over a period of four years

i.e. the characteristics (Total, age characteristics, gender
distribution, subject distribution, and geographic
distribution). Such an analysis could tell us the trends in
the characteristic over the four years.
Cont…
 ii. The panel study- is a powerful type of
longitudinal research. In panel study, the researcher
observes exactly the same people, group, or
organization across time periods.
 It is a difficult to carry out such study. Tracking
people over time is often difficult because some
people die or cannot be located.
 Nevertheless, the results of a well-designed panel
study are very valuable.
Cont…
 iii. A cohort study- is similar to the panel study, but
rather than observing the exact same people, a category
of people who share a similar life experience in a
specified time period is studied. The focus is on the
cohort, or category, not on specific individuals.
 Commonly used cohorts include all people born in the
same year (called birth cohorts), all people hired at the
same time, all people retire on one or two year time
frame, and all people who graduate in a given year.
Cont…
 Unlike panel studies, researchers do not have to
locate the exact same people for cohort studies.
 The only need to identify those who experienced a
common life event
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGNS
Qualitative research designs use methods that are
distinct from those used in quantitative designs. To be
sure, qualitative designs are just as systematic as
quantitative designs, but they emphasize gathering
data on naturally occurring phenomena.
Most of these data are in the form of words rather
than numbers, and in general, the researcher must
search and explore with a variety of methods until a
deep understanding is achieved.
Ethnography
 An ethnography is a description and interpretation
of a cultural or social group or system. Although
there is some disagreement about the precise
meaning of the term culture, the focus is on learned
patterns of actions, language, beliefs, rituals, and
ways of life. (study of a culture or social system)
 As a process, ethnography involves prolonged
fieldwork, typically employing observation and
casual interviews with participants of a shared
group activity and collecting group artifacts.
Case Study
 A case study. In this method of inquiry, the researcher
emphasizes an in-depth study of a particular case. The
researcher in the case study focuses on cases that can
provide critical information on less investigated or new learning
phenomena.

 Therefore case study tries to examines a bounded system, or a

case, over time in-depth while employing multiple sources of data
found in the setting.

 The case may be a program, an event, an activity, or a set of

individuals bounded in time and place.
Cont…
 The case can also be an individual (e.g. a patient, a
student with a specific learning disorder), or a small
group of individuals with some commonalities (e.g.
educators, educational theorists, students with the
specific psychological disorder), educational
institutions (e.g. colleges, schools with special needs,
poor-performing schools etc.), and specific events or
situation (school children facing home harassments and
trauma, school-age children working, school children
with single mother, school children living in toxic
environment etc.)
Cont…
 The researcher defines the case and its boundary. A case
can be selected because of its uniqueness or used to
illustrate an issue (Stake, 1995). The focus may be one
entity (within-site study) or several entities (multisite
study)
 A case study can employ multiple ways or methods or
techniques for collecting information or data such as
interview, observation, and psychological tests from a
variety of respondents who in some way of respondents
who in one way or another might be associated with the
case under study and can provide useful information
Phenomenology
 A phenomenological study describes the meanings
of a lived experience. The researcher “brackets,” or
puts aside, all prejudgments and collects data on
how individuals make sense out of a particular
experience or situation.
Cont…
 The aim of phenomenology is to transform lived
experience into a description of its “essence,”
allowing for reflection and analysis.
 The typical technique is for the researcher to
conduct long interviews with the informants
directed toward understanding their perspectives on
their everyday lived experience with the phenom
MIXED METHOD RESEARCH DESIGNS

 The use of mixed method research designs, which

combine quantitative and qualitative methods, is
becoming increasingly popular because the use of
both approaches together can provide a more
complete investigation. With mixed method
designs, researchers are not limited to using
techniques associated with traditional designs,
either quantitative or qualitative.
 Mixed method: incorporates both quantitative and
qualitative approaches.
Cont…
 For example, a study of how teachers apply the
results of high-stakes tests to their instruction might
use a written questionnaire to survey a large
number of teachers, as well as qualitative
interviews to probe the reasons for the use
documented in the survey.
 An important advantage of mixed-method studies
is that they can show the result (quantitative) and
explain why it was obtained (qualitative)
Explanatory Designs
 In an explanatory design, quantitative data are
collected first and, depending on the results,
qualitative data are gathered second to elucidate,
elaborate on, or explain the quantitative findings.
Typically, the main thrust of the study is quantitative,
and the qualitative results are secondary.
 For example, this kind of design could be used to
study classroom assessment and grading. A large
sample of teachers could be surveyed to determine the
extent to which they use different factors in classroom
assessment and grading; this would provide a general
overview of the teachers’ practices.
Cont…
 In a second phase, teachers could be selected who
represent extremely high or low scores on the factors
in the survey. These teachers could then be
interviewed using a qualitative method to determine
why they used certain practices. Thus, the qualitative
phase would be used to augment the statistical data
and thus explain the practices
Cont…
 When we encounter an issue that is already known
and have a description of it, we might begin to
wonder why things are the way they are.
 The desire to know "why," to explain, is the
purpose of explanatory research.
 It builds on exploratory and descriptive research
and goes on to identify the reasons for something
that occurs.
Cont…
 In nut shell, explanatory research looks for causes
and reasons.
 For example, a descriptive research may discover
that 10 percent of the parents abuse their children,
whereas the explanatory researcher is more
interested in learning why parents abuse their
children.
Goals of Explanatory Research
 1. Explain things not just reporting. Why?
Elaborate and enrich a theory's explanation.
 2. Determine which of several explanations is best.
 3. Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a
theory's predictions or principle.
 4. Advance knowledge about underlying process
Cont…
 5. Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and
enrich a theory's predictions or principle.
 6. Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new
issues, new topics:
 7. Provide evidence to support or refute an
explanation or prediction.
 8. Test a theory's predictions or principles
Exploratory Designs
 In exploratory design the qualitative data are
gathered first and a quantitative phase follows.

 The purpose of this kind of study, which is called

an exploratory design, is typically to use the initial
qualitative phase with a few individuals to identify
themes, ideas, perspectives, and beliefs that can
then be used to design the larger-scale quantitative
part of the study.
Cont…
 Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research
often relies on techniques such as:
i. Secondary research - such as reviewing available
literature and/or data
ii. Informal qualitative approaches, such as
discussions
iii. Formal qualitative research through in-depth
interviews, focus groups, projective methods,
case studies or pilot studies
Examples of Exploratory Research Design

 The following are some examples for studies with

exploratory research design in business studies:
 A study into the role of social networking sites as an
effective teacher-student communication channel
 An investigation into the ways of improvement of
quality of customer services within hospitality sector
in Morogoro
 An assessment of the role of corporate social
responsibility on consumer behaviour in
pharmaceutical industry in the Tanzania
The goals of exploratory research
 Develop familiarity with basic details, settings, and
concerns.
 Develop a well grounded picture of the situation
being developed.
 Generate new ideas and assumptions.
 Development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
 Determine whether a study is feasible in the future.
Cont…
 Expose issues that need to be refined for more
systematic investigation and formulation of new
research questions.
 Direct for future research and techniques get
developed.
Advantages of Exploratory
Research
 Flexibility and adaptability to change
 Effective in laying the groundwork that will lead to
future studies.
 save time and other resources by determining at the
earlier stages the types of research that are worth
pursuing
Cont…
 It is flexible and can address research questions of
all types (what, why, how).
 Provides an opportunity to define new terms and
clarify existing concepts.
 Used to generate formal hypotheses and develop
more precise research problems.
Differences
Exploratory Explanatory
research research
Well structured
Loosely structured
Structure and systematic in
in design
design
Have a formal
and definitive
Are flexible and
methodology that
Methodology investigative in
needs to be
methodology
followed and
tested
 Differences

Exploratory Explanatory
research research
Most conclusive
researches are
Do not involve
Hypotheses carried out to test the
testing of hypotheses
formulated
hypotheses
Findings might be
Findings are
topic specific and
significant as they
Findings might not have much
have a theoretical or
relevance outside of
applied implication
researcher’s domain
Triangulation
 In this design, both qualitative and quantitative data
are collected at about the same time. Triangulation
is used when the strengths of one method offset the
weaknesses of the other, so that together, they
provide a more comprehensive set of data.
 To the extent that the results from each method
converge and indicate the same result, there is
triangulation and thus greater credibility in the
findings.
Cont…
 Theoretically, the triangulation design is used
because the strengths of each approach can be
applied to provide not only a more complete result
but also one that is more valid. An example of a
triangulation design would be a study on school
culture.
 A quantitative survey of school culture could be
used in conjunction with focus groups of students,
teachers, and administrators.
Cont…
 The more the survey results match the focus group
results, the greater the validity of the conclusion that
a certain type of culture exists in the school. The
advantage of using the survey is that a large number
of students, teachers, and administrators can be
represented, and the advantage of using the focus
groups is that descriptions are provided in voices
specific to each group.