Psychology SA 4e Ch02 PowerPoint

Psychology
Themes and Variations

SA 4e
Chapter 2: Research
Methods in Psychology
Weiten, Psychology Themes & Variations: A South African Perspective, 4 th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 1
Icebreaker: Pair-Share
The class will be broken up into pairs of students.
Different sources of research can yield different types of results.

1. Each pair of students should discuss where they think they can obtain
psychological research studies to review.
2. Identify the theories and hypothesis the research study or studies attempt to
address. How did you make this determination?
Student pairs will then share their thoughts with the class.
Chapter objectives (1 of 4)
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

02.01 Explain science’s main assumption, and describe the goals of the scientific
approach.
02.02 Clarify the relationship between theory, hypotheses and research.
02.03 Outline the steps in a scientific investigation
02.04 Identify the advantages of the scientific approach.
02.05 Describe the difference between quantitative and qualitative research
approaches.
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
02.06 Explain the difference between internal and external validity.
02.07 Identify and describe different methods of data collection, and their
strengths and weaknesses.
02.08 Explain the role of naturalistic observation, case studies and surveys in
psychological research.
02.09 Describe three measures of central tendency and two measures of spread.
02.10 Distinguish between positive and negative correlations.

02.11 Discuss correlation in relation to prediction and causation.
02.12 Clarify the meaning of statistical significance.
02.13 Summarise the major ethical principles governing psychological research.
02.14 Discuss the controversy about the use of animals as research subjects.
02.15 Articulate the importance of replication in research.
02.16 Recognise common flaws in the design and execution of research.
02.17 Recognise placebo effects in research.
02.18 Identify the two unifying themes highlighted in this chapter.
02.19 Characterise the nature of technical journals.
02.20 Describe the standard organisation of journal articles reporting on

empirical research.
02.21 Recognise anecdotal evidence and understand why it is unreliable.

Unit 1
Psychology as a science
Goals of the scientific enterprise
Measurement and Understanding and Application and

description prediction control
• Develop • Hypothesis is a tentative Theory is a system of
measurement statement about the interrelated ideas used
techniques that make relationship between two or to explain a set of
it possible to describe more variables. observations.
behaviour clearly and
precisely. • Variables is any measurable
conditions, events,
characteristics or behaviours
that are controlled or
observed in a study.
Steps in a scientific investigation (1 of 2)
Steps in a scientific investigation (2 of 2)
• Operational definition: A definition that describes the actions or operations that will be used to
measure or control a variable.
• Participants (subjects): The persons (or animals) whose behaviour is systematically observed
in a study.
• Data collection techniques: Procedures for making empirical observations and

measurements.
• Data collection techniques: Procedures for making empirical observations and measurement.
• Direct observation, questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings,

and examination of archival records.
• Journal: A periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly
defined area of inquiry.
Advantages of the scientific approach
• Clarity and precision: Requires people to specify exactly what they are talking
about when they formulate hypotheses.
• Relative intolerance of error: Scientist demand objective data and thorough
documentation before they accept ideas.
• Research methods: Differing approaches to the observation, measurement,
manipulation, and control of variables in empirical studies.
Knowledge check activity 1
What is the first step of the scientific method?

a. collect data
b. develop a problem statement
c. analyse data
d. report results
Knowledge check activity 1: Answer
What is the first step of the scientific method?
b. develop a problem statement

The first step in a scientific investigation is to identify a problem in a
statement.
Unit 2
Research approaches
Experimental research design
Experiments are used more than any other research method. In this method, the
investigator does the following:
• Manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions.
• Observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result.
• Allows for detection of cause-and-effect relationships.
Independent and dependent variables
• The purpose of an experiment is to find out whether changes in one variable

cause changes in another.
• Independent variable: A condition or event that an experimenter varies in order
to see its impact on another variable.
• Dependent variable: The variable that is thought to be affected by the
manipulation of the independent variable. It is usually a measurement of some
aspect of the subjects’ behaviour.
Experimental and control groups
Experimental group Control group
• The subjects who receive some • The subjects who do not receive the
special treatment in regard to the special treatment given to the
independent variable. experimental group.
It is crucial that the experimental and control groups be very similar, except for
the different treatment received in regard to the independent variable.
Extraneous variables
Confounding of
Extraneous variables variables Random assignment
Any variables, other • Occurs when two A procedure in which

than the independent variables are linked in all subjects in a study
variable, that seem a way that makes it have an equal chance
likely to influence the difficult to sort out their of being assigned to
dependent variable in specific effects. any group or condition.
a specific study.
• Unanticipated and can
invalidate the findings
of the experiment.
Variations in designing experiments
• It is sometimes advantageous to use only one group of subjects who serve as

their own control group.
• The effects of independent variables are evaluated by exposing a single group
to an experimental condition and a control condition.
• It is possible to manipulate more than one independent variable or measure
more than one dependent variable in a single experiment.
• An interaction is detected when the effect of one variable depends on the effect
of another.
Advantages and disadvantages
of experimental research
Advantages Disadvantages
• Permits conclusions about cause- • Often artificial, simple, contrived

and-effect relationships between situations and can’t be used to
variables. explore some research questions.
• Ability to isolate the relationship • Psychologists are often interested in
between the independent variable the effects of factors that cannot be
and the dependent variable. manipulated as independent
variables.
• Can neutralise the effects of
extraneous variables. • Ethical concerns and practical
realities.
Discussion activity 1
Researchers often use experimental groups and control groups to test results.
This allows for the identification of the independent variable that affects some
participants but not others.
a. What is the difference between an experimental group and a control group?
b. What should researchers do to ensure that the treatment of each group
forwards the experiment or research?
Unit 3
Types of data collection methods
Quantitative data collection methods
• Standardised tests
− Norm-referenced tests
• Questionnaires
Qualitative methods of data collection
• Interviews
− Face-to-face
− Telephone or online
− Focus groups
• Observations
− Field study
− Lab
− Participant observation
• Documents
Which research design would be best to study play behaviours among children?
a. an experiment
b. naturalistic observation
c. a case study
d. parental surveys
Which research design would be best to study play behaviours among children?
b. naturalistic observation
In naturalistic observation a researcher engages in careful observation of

behaviour without intervening directly with the subjects. This type of
research is called naturalistic because behaviour is allowed to unfold
naturally (without interference) in its natural environment – that is, the
setting in which it would normally occur. Of course, researchers have to
make careful plans to ensure systematic, consistent observations.
Unit 4
Statistics in psychological research
Descriptive statistics
• Measures of central tendency:

− Mode
− Median
− Mean
• Measures of spread:
− Range
− variance and standard deviation
Correlation (1 of 3)
Exists when two variables are related to each other.

• A positive correlation indicates that two variables covary (change together) in
the same direction.
• A negative correlation indicates that two variables covary in opposite
directions.
• The terms positive and negative refer to the direction of the relationship
between two variables, not to its strength.
• Positively correlated if they tend to increase and decrease together.

• Negatively correlated if one tends to increase when the other decreases.
Correlation Correlation and Correlation and

coefficient prediction causation
• A numerical index of the As a correlation Correlation is not

degree of relationship increases in strength equivalent to
between two variables. (gets closer to either causation.
–1.00 or +1.00), the
• Varies between 0 and ability to predict one
+1.00 (positive variable based on
correlation) or between 0 knowledge of the
and –1.00 (negative other variable
correlation). increases.
Advantages and disadvantages of
descriptive/correlational research
Advantages Disadvantages
• Gives researchers a way to explore Descriptive/correlational research

questions they could not examine cannot demonstrate conclusively that
with experimental procedures. correlated variables are causally
related.
• Broadens the scope of phenomena
that psychologists can study.
Inferential statistics
• Inferential statistics are used to interpret data and draw conclusions.

• Inferential statistics are concerned with making predictions or inferences about a
population from observations and analyses of a sample.
• The results obtained from the sample can be generalised to the larger
population that the sample represents.
Unit 5
Ethics in psychological research
Ethical principles in research
Guidelines for research with human participants

• Participation should be voluntary with the ability to withdraw at any time.
• Participants should not be subjected to harmful or dangerous treatments.
• Participants should be debriefed as soon as possible if study requires
deception.
• Participants’ right to privacy should never be compromised.
Ethics committees approve a study based on their consideration on how these

issues will be treated.
The question of animal research
Arguments in favour Arguments against
• To learn more about a specific • Wrong to submit animals to harm or

animal. pain for research.
• To identify general laws of behaviour • Violates animals’ rights by subjecting

that apply to both humans and animals to unnecessary cruelty in
animals. trivial studies.
• Can expose animals to treatments • Waste of time as results do not apply

that would be unacceptable with to humans.
humans. • New technology makes animal
experimentation unnecessary.
Why would researchers need to use deception when conducting research?

Support your answer with an example.
Unit 6
Evaluating research
The importance of replication
The repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated.
• Identify and remove inaccurate findings.
• Poor ability to provide accurate estimates of replication rates.
• OSC project is fostering dialog on how to improve and increase reproducibility in
• Meta-analysis combines statistical results of many studies of the same
questions, yielding an estimate of size and consistency of a variable’s effects.
Looking for flaws: Evaluating research
Scientific research: More reliable than casual observations.

• Not all published research is free of errors.
• Must be examined critically.
• Methodological problems include sampling bias, placebo effects, distortions in
self-report data and experimenter bias.
Sampling bias
• A sample is the collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical

study.
• A population is the larger collection of animals or people (from which the
sample is drawn) that researchers want to generalise about.
• Sampling bias occurs when a sample is not representative of the population
from which it was drawn.
• Ethnic minorities and people from non-Western cultures are historically under-
sampled by American psychologists.
• Review composition of the sample first when concerned about results.
Measurement bias
• Measurement bias involves a systematic error that can occur during the
collection of data
• Examples:
− Instrument bias: when the instrument used to assess particular
phenomenon gives incorrect information because of a communication barrier
between the researcher and the participant
− Experimenter bias (expectancy effect): a subjective bias that occurs
towards particular results because the experimenter anticipates such
findings.
Distortions in self-report data
• Interview participants may feel compelled to give socially desirable answers, so

social desirability bias (i.e., the participant’s tendency to respond in a socially
acceptable manner) may occur.
• Anonymous feedback may help prevent this.
Unit 7
The placebo effect
Placebo effects
• A placebo is a substance that resembles a drug but has no actual

pharmacological effect.
• It is used because researchers know that participants’ expectations can
influence their feelings, reactions and behaviour.
• Placebo effects occur when participants’ expectations lead them to experience
some change even though they received an empty, fake or ineffectual
treatment.
Dr Mbuyisa is conducting a study where he combines the results of over 100

different studies on the topic of corporal punishment and developmental
outcomes. What research design is this?
a. an experiment
b. a correlation
c. a case study
d. a meta-analysis
Dr Mbuyisa is conducting a study where he combines the results of over 100

different studies on the topic of corporal punishment and developmental
outcomes. What research design is this?
d. a meta-analysis
Meta-analysis combines the statistical results of many studies of the same
question, yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variable’s
effects.
Unit 8
Reflecting on the chapter’s themes
Reflecting on the chapter’s themes
Psychology is empirical
• Entails testing ideas, basing conclusions on systematic observation and relying
on scepticism.
People’s experience of the world can be highly subjective
• When research participants report beneficial effects from a fake treatment (the
placebo), it’s because they expected to see these effects.
• Although they are trained to be objective, even scientists may see what they
expect to see or what they want to see.
Discussion activity 3: Pair-share
Students form pairs to answer the following questions.

The empirical approach to psychology sometimes includes deception, and
subjectivity in the personal experience.
a. Do you feel a science such as psychology should include deception? Why or
why not?
b. Does this type of methodology cause you to be concerned about research you
might conduct in this, or any other field? Can you provide examples that
support your feelings?
The student-pairs then share their answers with the class.
Unit 9
Personal application:
Finding and reading journal articles
Finding and reading journal articles
• Journals are periodicals focusing on technical and scholarly material, usually in

a narrowly defined area of inquiry.
• Most journal articles are reports that describe original empirical research.
• PsycINFO houses most psychology journals and is a searchable online
database.
• Although new accounts of research rarely mention where a study was
published, they often mention the name of the researcher.
Reading journal articles
Journals include several sections:

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Method
• Results
• Discussion
• References
Reviewing psychological studies can provide great deal of information.

a. As a psychology student, why would you need to review psychological
research studies? What could you gain from reviewing such literature?
b. In which ways can a reference be used in research? How can you use it to
generate leads for other sources?
Unit 10
Critical thinking application:
The shortcomings of anecdotal evidence
Anecdotal evidence
Stories about specific incidents and experiences.

Shortcomings:
• Language of research designs
• Similar to self-report data
• Inaccurate, embellished, hearsay
• Sampling bias
Instead, focus on evidence-based decision making.
Self-assessment
What are the goals of scientific research?

Why can experimental studies determine causation?
What are the benefits of descriptive research?
What are some key elements that need to be examined when evaluating
psychological research?
Why are ethics important in research?
Summary (1 of 4)
Now that the lesson has ended, you should be able to:
• Explain science’s main assumption, and describe the goals of the scientific
approach.
• Clarify the relationship between theory, hypotheses and research.
• Outline the steps in a scientific investigation
• Identify the advantages of the scientific approach.
• Describe the difference between quantitative and qualitative research
approaches.
Summary (2 of 4)
• Explain the difference between internal and external validity.
• Identify and describe different methods of data collection, and their strengths
and weaknesses.
• Explain the role of naturalistic observation, case studies and surveys in

• Describe three measures of central tendency and two measures of spread.
• Distinguish between positive and negative correlations.

Summary (3 of 4)
• Discuss correlation in relation to prediction and causation.
• Clarify the meaning of statistical significance.
• Summarise the major ethical principles governing psychological research.
• Discuss the controversy about the use of animals as research subjects.
• Articulate the importance of replication in research.
Summary (4 of 4)
• Recognise common flaws in the design and execution of research.
• Recognise placebo effects in research.
• Identify the two unifying themes highlighted in this chapter.
• Characterise the nature of technical journals.
• Describe the standard organisation of journal articles reporting on empirical

research.
• Recognise anecdotal evidence and understand why it is unreliable.


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Psychology

Themes and Variations

The class will be broken up into pairs of students.

Different sources of research can yield different types of results.

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

02.06 Explain the difference between internal and external validity.

02.10 Distinguish between positive and negative correlations.

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

02.11 Discuss correlation in relation to prediction and causation.

02.12 Clarify the meaning of statistical significance.

02.13 Summarise the major ethical principles governing psychological research.

02.15 Articulate the importance of replication in research.

02.16 Recognise common flaws in the design and execution of research.

02.17 Recognise placebo effects in research.

02.18 Identify the two unifying themes highlighted in this chapter.

02.19 Characterise the nature of technical journals.

02.20 Describe the standard organisation of journal articles reporting on

02.21 Recognise anecdotal evidence and understand why it is unreliable.

Measurement and Understanding and Application and

• Data collection techniques: Procedures for making empirical observations and

• Direct observation, questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings,

What is the first step of the scientific method?

What is the first step of the scientific method?

b. develop a problem statement

• The purpose of an experiment is to find out whether changes in one variable

Experimental group Control group

Any variables, other • Occurs when two A procedure in which

• It is sometimes advantageous to use only one group of subjects who serve as

• Permits conclusions about cause- • Often artificial, simple, contrived

In naturalistic observation a researcher engages in careful observation of

• Measures of central tendency:

Exists when two variables are related to each other.

• Positively correlated if they tend to increase and decrease together.

Correlation Correlation and Correlation and

• A numerical index of the As a correlation Correlation is not

• Gives researchers a way to explore Descriptive/correlational research

• Inferential statistics are used to interpret data and draw conclusions.

Guidelines for research with human participants

Ethics committees approve a study based on their consideration on how these

Arguments in favour Arguments against

• To learn more about a specific • Wrong to submit animals to harm or

• To identify general laws of behaviour • Violates animals’ rights by subjecting

• Can expose animals to treatments • Waste of time as results do not apply

Why would researchers need to use deception when conducting research?

Scientific research: More reliable than casual observations.

• A sample is the collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical

• Interview participants may feel compelled to give socially desirable answers, so

• A placebo is a substance that resembles a drug but has no actual

Dr Mbuyisa is conducting a study where he combines the results of over 100

Dr Mbuyisa is conducting a study where he combines the results of over 100

Students form pairs to answer the following questions.

• Journals are periodicals focusing on technical and scholarly material, usually in

Journals include several sections:

Reviewing psychological studies can provide great deal of information.

Stories about specific incidents and experiences.

Instead, focus on evidence-based decision making.

What are the goals of scientific research?

• Explain the role of naturalistic observation, case studies and surveys in

• Describe three measures of central tendency and two measures of spread.

• Distinguish between positive and negative correlations.

• Discuss correlation in relation to prediction and causation.

• Clarify the meaning of statistical significance.

• Summarise the major ethical principles governing psychological research.

• Discuss the controversy about the use of animals as research subjects.