Eductive Propositions

Philosophy and Logic

20 March 2019
Rexor H. Magbutay
Eductive Propositions

The four types of simple categorical propositions (A, E, I, O) that we

studied also implied an equivalent relation or an immediate inference.
Eductive Propositions

Immediate inference is a process of deriving a conclusion or

assumption from an original argument while retaining the truth
value of the original proposition.
Eductive Propositions

This proposition:
“All men are bipeds”
implies that those who do not belong to the class of bipeds are not
men.
Eductive Propositions

Thus we can deduce that

“No men are non-bipeds.”
Eductive Propositions

Eduction the process of immediate inference, whereby, from any

proposition taken as true, we derive others implied in it, though
differing from the first in subject or predicate or both (Bittle, 1950).
Eductive Propositions

There are three main forms of eduction:

1. obversion,
2. conversion,
3. and contraposition.
1. Obversion

Obversion (Latin, Ob, before, towards, and vertere, to turn) is a

process of immediate inference in which the inferred judgment, while
retaining the original subject, has for its predicate the complementary
class of the original class of the original predicate (Copi, 1978).
1. Obversion

In the proposition, “All men are mortal beings,” the predicate term
“mortal beings” has a complementary class of “non-mortal beings.”

In the same way, the proposition, “Some scholars are genius,” has a
complementary class of “non-genius.”
1. Obversion

In obversion, the process of eduction involves two phases: on the

(1) quality of the proposition (but not in its quantity) and the (2) status
of the predicate term.
In obversion, the original proposition is called obvertend while the
derived proposition is the obverse (Bittle,1950).
1. Obversion

Following the procedures outlined, we can now form the obverse of the
following proposition:

1. If the obvertend is an A proposition, its obverse will be the E

proposition with the predicate of the obvertend substituted with the
complementary class of its predicate. Thus,
1. Obversion

Obvertend:
All men are rational animals.
Obverse:
All men are not non-rational animals.
No men are non-rational animals.
1. Obversion

2. If the obvertend is an E proposition, its obverse will be the A

proposition with the predicate of the obvertend substituted with the
complementary class of its predicate. Thus,
1. Obversion

Obvertend:
No dogs are rational animals.
Obverse:
All dogs are non-rational animals.
1. Obversion

3. If the obvertend is an I proposition, its obverse will be the O

proposition with the predicate of the obvertend substituted with the
complementary class of its predicate. Thus,
1. Obversion

Obvertend:
Some students are scholars.
Obverse:
Some students are not non-scholars.
1. Obversion

4. If the obvertend is an O proposition, its obverse will be the I

proposition with the predicate of the obvertend substituted with the
complementary class of its predicate. Thus,
1. Obversion

Obvertend:
Some bipedal animals are not birds.
Obverse:
Some bipedal animals are non-birds.
 Obvertend Obverse pattern Example
pattern Obvertend Obverse
All S is P. No S is non P. All angels are No angels are non-
spiritual beings. spiritual beings.
No S is P. All S is non P. No angels are All angels are non-
carnal beings. carnal beings.
Some S is P. Some S is not non Some students are Some students are
P. scholars. not non-students.
Some S is not P. Some S is non P. Some plants are Some plants are
not vines. non-vines.
2. Conversion

Conversion (Latin, converter, to turn) is a process of immediate

inference, in which the inferred judgment takes the subject of the
original proposition (convertend) for its predicate and the predicate
of the convertend as its subject (Bittle, 1950).
2. Conversion

The derived proposition is called converse. In simple terms,

conversion is a simple switching of the subject and predicate
terms.
Thus, the proposition “Some new graduates are employed
professionals” becomes “Some new employed professionals are
new graduates.”
2. Conversion

In modern logic it is only valid for the E and I propositions. There are
three rules to observe in making the conversion:

1. Swap the subject and predicate terms. This rule implies that the
quality of the proposition and the quantity of the terms should be left
unchanged.
2. Conversion

Convertend:
No carabaos are pigs.
Converse:
No pigs are carabaos.
2. Conversion

2. Retain the quality of the proposition. If the convertend is

affirmative, then the converse must also be affirmative. If the
convertend is negative, then the converse must also be negative.
2. Conversion

Convertend:
Some students are athletes.
Converse:
Some athletes are students.
2. Conversion

3. Do not extend any term. The quantity of the term must not be affected
in the process of conversion. If a term, either subject term or
predicate term, is particular, then in conversion, it must retain its
quantity. Concerning the quantity of the terms, as a general rule, the
predicate term of all affirmative propositions is always particular
while the predicate term of all negative proposition is always
universal.
2. Conversion

Convertend:
Some Filipinos are millionaires. (The predicate is
particular.)
Converse:
Some millionaires are Filipinos.
2. Conversion by limitation

In traditional logic, the A proposition has a converse by limitation

which is the subaltern of the invalid A-converse; i.e., the
corresponding I proposition. The converse by limitation is implied
by the original but is not (usually) equivalent to it.
2. Conversion by limitation

Convertend (A proposition):
All plants are living beings.
Converse:
Some living being are plants.
3. Contraposition

Contraposition is the process of eduction which combines

conversion and obversion. It is formed by two steps:

1. Application of the conversion process

2. Substitution of the subject and predicate terms of the
converse with their complementary class.
3. Contraposition

The original proposition is referred to as contraponend while the

equivalent proposition is called the contrapositive.

In modern logic, it is only valid for the A and O propositions. The

valid contrapositive is logically equivalent to the original proposition.
3. Contraposition

Contraponend (A proposition):
All men are mortal beings.
Contrapositive:
All non-mortal (or immortal) beings are non-men.
3. Contraposition

Contraponend (O proposition):
Some prisoners are not innocent individuals.
Contrapositive:
Some non-innocent individuals are not non-prisoners.
3. Contraposition

If we want to check our contrapositive propositions for its validity,

the following procedure can be adopted:
Step 1. Form the obverse.
Step 2. Form the converse of step 1.
Step 3. Form the obverse of Step 2. This is the contrapositive.
3. Contraposition

Contraponend (A proposition):
All men are mortal beings.
Step 1. Obverse: No men are non-mortal beings.
Step 2. Converse: No non-mortal beings are men.
Step 3. All non-mortal (or immortal) beings are non-men.
3. Contraposition by limitation

In traditional logic, the E proposition has a contrapositive by

limitation which is the subaltern of the invalid E contrapositive; i.e.,
the corresponding O proposition. The contrapositive by limitation (or
partial contraposition) is implied by the original but is not
(usually) equivalent to it.
3. Contraposition by limitation

Contraponend (E proposition):
No spiritual beings are mortal being.
Contrapositive:
Some non-mortal (or immortal) beings are not non-
spiritual beings.
3. Contraposition by limitation

Contraponend (E proposition):
No spiritual beings are mortal being.
Step 1. All spiritual beings are non-mortal beings.
Step 2. All non-mortal beings are spiritual beings.
Step 3. No non-mortal beings are non-spiritual beings.
Some non-mortal (or immortal) beings are not non-
spiritual beings.
3. Contraposition by limitation

Contraponend (E proposition):
No spiritual beings are mortal being.
Step 1. No mortal beings are spiritual beings.
Step 2. No non-mortal beings are non-spiritual beings.
Some non-mortal (or immortal) beings are not non-
spiritual beings.