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UNIT 2

EQUIVALENCE OF PROPOSITIONS

- It is the process of expressing the proposition in varied ways without changing its original
meaning. There are four kinds of equivalence: obversion, conversion, contraposition
and inversion.

A. OBVERSION- a form of immediate inference which consists in substituting an

affirmative proposition with its negative equivalent, or vice-versa. The original
proposition is called obvertend; the resultant inference is called obverse.

*Rules of Obversion:

1. Change the quality of the proposition, i.e., the affirmative proposition becomes negative and
vice-versa.
2. Substitute in place of the predicate its contradictory term.
Examples:
1. All men are free. – All men are not non-free.
2. Some men are free. – Some men are not non-free.
3. All men are honest. – All men are not dishonest.

B. CONVERSION- A form of immediate inference which consists in transposing the

subject and the predicate without changing their meaning. The original proposition is
called convertend; the resultant inference is called converse.

b.1. Simple Conversion- consists in transposing the subject and the predicate, and
retaining the quality of the original proposition and the quality of the terms. This kind of
conversion is also known as perfect or full conversion because the converse perfectly
tallies with the convertend.

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*Rules:
1. Transpose the subject and the predicate of the convertend.
2. Retain the quality of the proposition.
3. Retain the quantity of the terms.

Examples:
1. All pen is not a chalk.—All chalk is not a pen.
2. Some students are scholars. – Some scholars are students.

b.2. Partial Conversion- consists in transposing the subject and the predicate with the
quantity of the proposition changed from universal to particular. This kind of conversion
is also called accidental conversion or conversion by limitation because the quantity of
the proposition is lessened. Only A proposition can undergo partial conversion. (A to I)

* Rules:
1. Transpose the subject and the predicate.
2. Retain the quality of the proposition.
3. The universal affirmative proposition becomes particular.
Examples:
1. All stones are inanimate. – Some inanimate objects are stones.
2. All judges are lawyers. – Some lawyers are judges.

C. CONTRAPOSITION- is a form of immediate inference that involves the method of

obversion and conversion. There are two kinds of contraposition: partial and full. The
original proposition is called contraponend; the resultant inference is called contraposit.

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c.1. Partial contraposition consists in obverting the original proposition, then converting
its obverse. It is simply the converse of the obverse of the given proposition.

*Rules:
1. Obvert the given proposition.
2. Convert the resultant proposition.
Examples:
1. All roses are flowers.
Obverse: All roses are not non-flowers.
Converse: All non-flowers are not roses.

2. All dogs are not cats.

Obverse: All dogs are non-cats.
Converse: All non-cats are dogs.

3. Some lawyers are judges.

Obverse: Some lawyers are not non-judges.
Converse: Some non-judges are not lawyers.

4. Some students are not scholars.

Obverse: Some students are non-scholars.
Converse: Some non-scholars are students.

c.2. Full Contraposition consists in obverting the outcome of partial contraposition. It is

simply the obverse of the converse of the obverse of the given proposition. The resultant
inference is, nevertheless, the equivalent of the original contraposit.

*Rules:
1. Obvert the given proposition.
2. Convert its obverse.

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3. Obvert its converse.

Examples: (Note: PC stands for partial contraposition and FC for full contraposition.)

1. All roses are flowers.

Obverse: All roses are not non-flowers.
PC: All non-flowers are not roses.
FC: All non-flowers are non-roses.

2. All dogs are not cats.

Obverse: All dogs are non-cats.
PC: Some non-cats are dogs.
FC: Some non-cats are not non-dogs.

D. INVERSION introduces negative particles before the subject and the predicate. The
original proposition is called invertend; the resultant inference is called inverse.
- Note: inversion is only valid for A and E propositions.

d.1. Inversion of A-proposition

- To get the full inverse of an A-proposition, convert its contraposit.
- To get the partial inverse, obvert the full inverse.

Examples:

A -- All roses are flowers.

Obverse: All roses are not non-flowers.
Converse: All non-flowers are not roses.
Converse: Some non-roses are non-flowers. (Full Inverse)
Obverse: Some non-roses are not flowers. (Partial Inverse)

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d.2 inversion of E-proposition

- To get the partial inverse of E-proposition, convert, obvert and convert again the original
proposition.
- To get the full inverse, obvert the partial inverse.

Examples:

E-- All dogs are not cats.

Converse: All cats are not dogs.
Obverse: All cats are non-dogs.
Converse: Some non-dogs are cats. (Partial Inverse)
Obverse: Some non-dogs are not non-cats. (Full Inverse)

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