NEM441

Nuclear Reactor Engineering 1

Fall 2023
Dr. Şule Ergün
Heat Generation in the Reactor Core and
Structures
1
 Lecture 8
• Laws of Thermodynamics
– The First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of
Energy)
– Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Carnot Cycle
• Rankine Cycle
• Methods of Increasing Rankine Cycle Efficiency
• Regenerative Feedwater Heating
• Comparisons of Fossil and LWR Nuclear Steam Cycles

2
 Outline
• Heat Generation in the Reactor Core and
Structures
– Introduction
– Fission Energy Distribution in Reactors
– Neutron Flux Distributions in Heterogeneous
Reactor Core
– The Volumetric Heat Generation Rate In the
Core

3
 Outline
• Heat Generated by a Single Fuel Pin
• The Total Heat Generated in the Core
– The Case of the Homogeneous Core
– The Case of the In-Homogeneous Core
• Reactor Shut Down Decay Heat
• Heat Generation in the Moderator, Other
Core Elements and Core Structure

4
Heat Generation in the Reactor
Core and Structures
Introduction
• The reactor must be operated at such a
power level that, with the available heat
removal system, the temperature and heat
flux anywhere in the core does not exceed
specific safe limits.
• The maximum power generation in a given
reactor core is limited by thermal rather
than nuclear considerations
5
 Introduction-Continued
• We have coupled a problem where the
neutron flux, rod behavior (mechanical and
thermal), and the coolant are all
interrelated such that a change in one
affects the other two.

Feedback Loops

REACTOR FUEL ELEMENT COOLANT THERMAL

FLUX MECH/THERMAL MODERATING

DISTRIBUTION BEHAVIOR BEHAVIOR

6
 Introduction -Continued
• to calculate the thermal performance of a
reactor:
– examine how we calculate the volumetric heat
generation rate
– the fuel rod behavior
– the coolant performance.

– See how these are all coupled to determine

the reactor behavior.
7
 Fission Energy Distribution in
Reactors
• The energy of nuclear fission is released
as:
– kinetic energy of fission fragments
– neutron kinetic energy
– beta and gamma rays
– neutrino energy
• More than 90% of the thermal energy is
released immediately after the fission
occurs
8
 Fission Energy Distribution in
Reactors
• Approximately 200 MeV, exclusive of the energy
lost with neutrinos, is released per fission:

Isotope G, MeV/Fission
232
note that the energy Th 196.2 ± 1.1
233
release will vary slightly U 199.0 ± 1.1
with the reactor design 235
U 201.7 ± 0.6
since the neutron-capture 238
U 208.5 ± 1.1
products vary with the 239
reactor materials used. Pu 210.7 ± 1.2
241
Pu 213.8 ± 1.0 9
 Fission Energy Distribution in
Reactors
• A large fraction of the thermal energy will be
released directly in the fuel:

Receiver Time Instantaneous (%) Delayed (%) Total (%)

Fuel Element Kinetic Energy of 83 Fission Product β 44 87.0
Fission Fragments

Dispersed among Kinetic Energy of 2.5 Neutron Capture γ* 3 5.5

Fuel Structure and Neutrons
Moderator Gamma-ray Energy 4 Fission Product γ 3.5 7.5

Total 89.5 10.5 100.0

10
 Fission Energy Distribution in
Reactors
• It is common thermal-reactor design
practice to assume that all but 2-3% of the
total energy is released with the fuel.
• Westinghouse and other fuel designers
assume, for design calculations, a total
energy release of 200 MeV/fission and
that 97.4% of the energy release occurs
directly in the fuel
– conservative from the fuel thermal perform-­
once point of view since it will result in a
higher fuel temperature. 11
 Neutron Flux Distributions in
Heterogeneous Reactor Core
• The homogenous
neutron flux
distribution for a
thermal reactor is
given in Appendix A
for a right circular
cylinder
• The reactor core is
heterogeneous
12
 Neutron Flux Distributions in
Heterogeneous Reactor Core
• Resonance absorption:
– Occurs mostly in the surface layers of the fuel
elements (shielding the bulk of the fuel from
resonance absorption)
– Some fission of U238 by high-energy neutrons
occurs in a heterogeneous reactor.

13
 Neutron Flux Distributions in
Heterogeneous Reactor Core

• All light water-cooled reactors have to use

fuels slightly enriched in U235 .
• In a real reactor core, the fuel moderator
interfaces represent boundaries which the
homogeneous neutron flux distributions
ignore

14
 Neutron Flux Distributions in
Heterogeneous Reactor Core
• The general two-group (thermal and fast)
diffusion equations are: P= the probability of a
For fast neutrons fast neutron being
k thermalized
D1 1 
2
11  ( ) 22  0 D1, D2 = diffusion
P
(leakage) - (slowing down)  (source) coefficients for fast and
thermal neutrons
For thermal neutrons Σ 2 = thermal absorption
cross section
D2 2 
2
 22  P11  0 k /P = fast neutrons
∞
(leakage) - (absorption)  (source) produced per thermal
15
absorption in the fuel
 Neutron Flux Distributions in
Heterogeneous Reactor Core
• In the fuel rod these equations become:
k
D1 1  11  ( ) 2 2  0
2

P
D2  2 2   2 2  0

• In the moderator, the equations become:

D1 1  11  0
2

D2  2 2   2 2  P11  0
16
 Fast

• The actual flux pattern

Thermal

shows a dip in the thermal

flux within each fuel Core

element and a hump

within the adjacent
moderator
Actual Fast

Theoretical fast

Actual thermal

Moderator
Theoretical
thermal

Fuell 17
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
• The heat generation rate is equal to the
rate of the neutron reaction times the
energy release per reaction:
Reactions
R  
cm 3  sec
• The heat generated for a reaction within
the core is then
MeV (G is the energy per
q" '  G f R  G f  f  reaction in MeV (200
cm  sec
3
MeV) ) 18
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
• “f” denotes fission and
  N f f

• then
Btu
q" '  1.5477 x10 G f N f  f 
8
3
hr - ft

19
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
• Considering more then one fissionable
isotopes and only fast and thermal
neutrons

( f th ( x )th ( x )   f f  f ( x ))
8 235 235
q" ' ( x )  1.5477 x10 {[G f Nf
 Gf
238
Nf  f  f (x)
238
f

( f th ( x )th ( x )   f f  f ( x ))
239 239
 Gf Nf
( f th ( x )th ( x )   f f  f ( x ))] ( x , E )dE }
241 241
 Gf Nf
20
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
• The total amount of energy generated in
the fuel alone can be obtained by
multiplying these equations by 0.974
(Westinghouse practice)
• Values of Nf for the isotopes would be
calculated from a fuel management
program
• The fission cross sections would depend
on the neutron energy and the moderator
temperature.
21
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
• The volumetric heat generation rate is
directly dependent on the
– neutron flux
– fissionable fuel density (therefore the fuel
type)
– the fission cross section

22
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
• Fissionable Fuel Density
– The fissionable fuel density, Nff is a function of
the type of fuel, enrichment used and the fuel
material density. The value of Nff will vary
during core life due to:
– burn-up
– local flux distribution
– fuel type

23
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
• Fissionable Fuel Density
Av where ρff is the density of
N ff   ff i the fissionable fuel, i is the
M ff
number of fuel
atoms/molecule of fuel
ρf is the density of the fuel
ρfm is the density of the fuel
 ff  r f  rf fm material
r is the enrichment or mass ratio
of fissionable to total fuel
f is the mass fraction of the fuel24
in the fuel material
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
• Fissionable Fuel Density

rM ff  (1  r ) M Nf
f 
rM ff  (1  r ) M Nf  M O2

As reactor operation proceeds, the enriched portion

of the fuel is consumed and therefore, N f
decreases. Therefore, an accurate accounting of
the fissionable nuclear density is needed
throughout core life to obtain the volumetric heat
generation rate in the fuel pin. 25
The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core

26
The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core

27
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
• In order to calculate the volumetric heat
generation rate, the local fission cross
section must be known, as with most
absorption cross sections, it is dependent
upon the energy of the incoming neutron
– The derivation of the fission cross section assuming a
Maxwellian energy distribution is given in Lamarsh
and Baratta, Third edition pages 252-256

 E o 0.5 E o 0.5
f   fo ( )  0.8862 fo ( )
2 kT kT 28
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
To 0.5
 f  0.8862 fo ( )
T

where

σfo = fission cross section for 0.0253 eV or 2200

m/sec neutrons,
T = effective neutron absolute temperature, K or R
To = 20°C + 273 = 293 K, or 528 R.
29
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
• For the reactors
moderated by
D2O, graphite Be
and BeO but not
light water:
To 0.5
 f  0.8862 f (T ) fo ( )
T

30
 The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core
• For the light water it is necessary to
correct the neutron energy distribution for
the departure from Maxwellian distribution
and 1/V absorption
• These departures result in the so-called
Wigner­Wilkins spectra, and depend on the
fuel-to-moderator ratio for a light water
reactor system

31
The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core

For light water moderated

system:
•the cross section must be
corrected for temperature
using
To 0.5
( )
T
•the thermal utilization
factor as (1/1+α), where α
= 0.175 32
The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core

33
The Volumetric Heat Generation
Rate In the Core

34
 Heat Generated by a Single Fuel
Pin
• If we know the local volumetric heat generation
rate, q”’(z), and assume that we examine only one
rod in the core so that q”’(z) only; then the total
heat generated from that one element is
H /2
the element is H long and has a
qt   q"' ( z ) As dz
H / 2
fuel cross sectional area of As

• If the reactor has a cosine axial flux shape then

z
 ( z )  c cos( ) and q" ' ( z )  q" 'c cos( z ) He is the
H e He extrapolated
35
height.
 Heat Generated by a Single Fuel
Pin
• The total heat generated by the single fuel
element is the integral over the full heated
length:
H /2
z 2 H
qt   q" '
H / 2
c As cos(
He
)dz 

q c " ' As H e Sin
2H e

• if He ≈ H (not a bad approximation for

large cores)
2 the total power for the
qt  qc " ' As H
 single fuel pin. 36
 The Total Heat Generated in the
Core
• The Total Heat Generated in the Core
– The Case of the Homogeneous Core:
q" ' (r , z )  G f  f  (r , z ) For total core power

Qt   q" ' (r , z )dv

Vol

Qt  q " 'Vcore

37
 The Total Heat Generated in the
Core
• The Total Heat Generated in the Core
– The Case of the In-Homogeneous Core:
the core radial power profile given as :

q"'c0 is the peak core heat generation

2.4048r rate
qc " '  qc 0 " ' J o ( )
Re Re is the extrapolated core radius
r is the local radial position in the
core

38
 The Total Heat Generated in the
Core
R
n
R H /2
2.4048r z
0 qt '2rdr  Qt  R 2 0  H/q2 c 0 " ' J o ( Re ) As Cos( H e )2rdrdz

Integrating the Z dependence yields

H 4n
R
2.4048r
Qt  Sin( ) 2 As H e qc 0 " '  r J o ( )dr
2 H e R 0
Re

R
4n 2.4048r
If He=H, Re=R Qt  2 As Hqc 0 " '  r J o ( )dr
R 0
Re
39
The Total Heat Generated in the
Core
– the bessel function Jo integrates to a J1 bessel
function with the limits as r = 0, r = R which
integrates as
4nAs Hqc 0 " ' R 2.4048r R
Qt  [ {rJ ( )}0 ]
R 2 1
2.4048 R
4nAs Hqc 0 " ' R
Qt  [ (0.519) R]  0.2747nAs Hqc 0 " '
R 2
2.4048
For an LWR, the total power in the core (fuel plus
moderator) is 1
Qt  ( )(0.2747)nAs Hqc 0 " '  0.282nAs Hqc 0 " '
0.974
40
The Total Heat Generated in the
Core
– the core linear power (kW/ft):

kW
(Qtt x1000 )(0.974)
ql  MW
(No. of fuel Assem.)(No. of Rods/Assemb.)(No. of feet/rod)
– The peak linear heat rate (PLHR) can then be
found by multiplying the core linear power by
the nuclear peaking factors and any
uncertainty parameters
ql  ql .FN .FNz .FQ .....
peak R E

41
Reactor Shut Down Decay Heat
• Reactor Shut Down Decay Heat:
– In a reactor, heat is still produced due to the delayed
neutrons and the γ, β, α decay of the fission products
contained within the core

42
Reactor Shut Down Decay Heat
– In a PWR, there is the Residual Heat
Removal System which is an independent
system from the main coolant loop with its
own pumps and heat exchangers and used to
remove the decay heat
– In case of a LOCA, The decay power is the
heat source which must be cooled by the
emergency core cooling systems (ECCS).

43
Reactor Shut Down Decay Heat
– The volumetric heat generation rate is
proportional to the power as

q s " ' / qo " '  Ps / Po

– For uranium fuels:
Ps / Po  [0.1( s  10) 0.2  0.087( s  2 x10 7 ) 0.2 ]
 [0.1( s   0  10) 0.2  0.087( s   0  2 x10 7 ) 0.2 ]

s are in seconds
44
Reactor Shut Down Decay Heat
0.26
Ps / Po  0.095 s
for θs >200 seconds and
θ0 = ∞ (infinite operating
time)

The total energy release can be obtained by

s s
E s   ( Ps / P0 )d s   0.095 s
 0.26
d s
0 0

E s  0.128 s
0.74

45
Reactor Shut Down Decay Heat
New Standards for the Decay Heat Power in
Light Water Reactors
1.E+01

1.E+01

1.E+01
F(t,10 s), MeV/fission

8.E+00

6.E+00
13

4.E+00

2.E+00

0.E+00
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 1.E+08 1.E+09 1.E+10
Time after Shutdown (s)

The Standard Decay Heat Power for Thermal Fission of 235

U following an46
Irradiation of 1013 seconds
Heat Generation in the Moderator, Other
Core Elements and Core Structure
• Strong radiation escapes from the core
and exists within the core during the
fissioning process. The most significant
energy sources are

1. fission γ-rays which have high energy

2. fast neutrons
3. fission product γ -rays
4. capture γ-rays from neutron absorption.
47
 Heat Generation in the Moderator, Other
Core Elements and Core Structure

Generally, in a
commercial reactor,
the limiting radiation
which one must shield
against is the γ -rays

48
Heat Generation in the Moderator, Other
Core Elements and Core Structure
• Radiation absorption into the pressure vessel is
an important design problem for PWR’s and is
correspondingly less important for BWR,
LMFBR, and HTGR reactor types
• Earlier PWR's employed thermal shields which
absorbed the neutrons leaving the core and thus
lowered the radiation damage to the vessel wall.
More recent PWR designs use neutron pads to
shield the core edges which have the highest
dose rates. While its the neutrons which can
lead to structural damage, it is the γ-rays which
contribute to the heating of the shield.

49
Heat Generation in the Moderator, Other
Core Elements and Core Structure
• If the number of particles absorbed at a particular
location is proportional to the number of particles
at that location, than the change in flux is
proportional to the local flux. That is:

(   )     x

i
  
x

d
x

Integrating yields,   
  dx
0
o
50
Heat Generation in the Moderator, Other
Core Elements and Core Structure
– which yields

ln( )   x
o
– or

 x
  o e

– For neutrons   o e   x
r

51
Heat Generation in the Moderator, Other
Core Elements and Core Structure
– For γ-rays, the intensity is equal to the flux
times the energy of the incident γ-ray beam
I   ( h )

– Since I is proportional to flux then

I  I o e  x

– The energy absorbed in the material

q" '  I or q" '  I o e  x (1.5477 x10 8 ) (Btu/hr-ft3)
52
Heat Generation in the Moderator, Other
Core Elements and Core Structure
– For neutrons, similar relationships can be
derived:
I  E
E f  Et n is the number of
E 
n collisions to thermalize

Then;
q" '   RE
53