II: Capacitive sensing elements

Capacitance is the ability of an element to store electric charges

in its electric field.
Basically there are two capacitor models; the parallel plate and
coaxial cable.
 Parallel plate

 Coaxial cable: C=2πϵl/ln(b/a),

 A change in the parameters expressing the capacitors due to

any physical effect employed will cause a change in

capacitance.
 The parallel plate capacitor is used to measure some physical

parameters such as displacement. 1

Contd…
• The capacitance of a capacitor can be changed by varying its
area, gap length or dielectric constant.

• The simplest capacitor or condenser consists of two parallel metal

plates separated by a dielectric or insulating material (see fig below)

• The capacitance of this parallel plate is given by:

2
A, Variable separation Displacement Sensors.
 A capacitor displacement sensor, made from two
flat coplanar plates with a variable distance x
apart, is illustrated in Figure 2.8.
 If the displacement x causes the plate separation

to increase to d + x ; the capacitance of the sensor

is;
 i.e. there is a non-linear relation between C and x.

3
Contd…

 FIGURE 2.8: A variable distance capacitive

displacement sensor. One of the plates of the
capacitor moves to vary the distance between
plates in response to changes in a physical
variable.

4
B, Variable area Displacement Sensors.
 In the variable area type, the displacementx causes
the overlap area to decrease by ∆A = wx.
 Where w is the width of the plates, giving:

Figure 2.9: A variable area capacitive

displacement sensor.
The sensor operates on the variation in
the effective area between plates of a
flat-plate capacitor.

5
C, Variable dielectric Displacement Sensors.
 In the variable dielectric type, the displacement x
changes the amount of dielectric material ℇ2 (ℇ2 >
ℇ1) inserted between the plates.
 The total capacitance of the sensor is the sum of
two capacitance, one with area A1 and dielectric
constant ℇ1 , and one with area A2 and dielectric
constant ℇ2 i.e.

6
Contd…

 FIGURE 2.10: A variable

dielectric capacitive
displacement sensor.
 The dielectric material

between the two parallel

plate capacitors moves,
varying the effective
dielectric constant.
 The output of the sensor

is linear.
7
Capacitive Sensors – Liquid Level Measurement

 A simple application
of such a Capacitive
Sensor is for liquid
measurement
 The dielectric
constant changes
between the
electrodes as long as
there is a change in
Figure 2.11: Capacitive
the level of the liquid
transducer for liquid
level measurement.
8
Contd…
 This is one example of capacitive level sensor
consists of concentric metal cylinders.
 The space between the cylinders contains liquid to

the height of the liquid in vessel.

 Assuming the dielectric constant of air is unity;
 The capacitance of the level sensor is given by:

9
Capacitive sensors – Pressure Sensor

Capacitive pressure sensor is shown in Figure 2.12.
 one plate is a fixed metal disk, the other is a flexible flat

circular diaphragm, clamped around its circumference;

 the dielectric material is air .
 The diaphragm is an elastic sensing element which is

bent into a curve by the applied pressure P.

 The deflection y at radius r is given by:

Figure 2.12: Capacitive pressure sensor

10
Contd…
 The deformation of the diaphragm means that the
average separation of the plates is reduced.
 The resulting increase in capacitance ∆C is given

by;

 Where d is the initial separation of the plates and;

is the capacitance at zero pressure.

11
Capacitive Proximity Sensor
 Capacitive proximity sensors are non-contact
switches.

 Used to detect metallic objects, non-metallic

objects, solids and liquids.

 Capacitive proximity sensors react to alterations in

an electrostatic field to sense objects.

Figure 2.13: Capacitive proximity sensor

12
Cond…
 It measures a change in capacitance which is
caused by the approach of an object to the
electrical field of a capacitor.

 Two small plates that form a capacitor are located

directly behind the front of the sensor.

 The maximum sensing distance depends on the

physical and dielectric characteristics of the object.

 The larger the dielectric constant, the easier it is

for the capacitive sensor to detect the object.

13
Contd…

Figure 2.13: Capacitive proximity

sensor 14
Inductive sensors
 Inductive sensors are primarily based on the
principles of magnetic circuits.
 They can be classified as active(self-generating) or

passive.
 The self-generating types utilize an electrical

generator principle;
◦ that is, when there is a relative motion between a
conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in
the conductor.
◦ Or, a varying magnetic field linking a stationary conductor
produces voltage in the conductor.
 In instrumentation applications, the magnetic field
may be varying with some frequency and the
conductor may also be moving at the same time.
15
Contd…
 In inductive sensors, the relative motion between
field and conductor is supplied by changes in the
measurand, usually by means of some mechanical
motion.
 For the explanation of the basic principles of

inductive sensors, a simple magnetic circuit is

shown in the figure 2.14, shows a magnetic circuit
consists of a core, made from a ferromagnetic
material with a coil of n number of turns wound on
it.
 The coil acts as a source of magnetomotive force

(mmf) which drives the flux Φ through the

magnetic circuit.
16
Contd…
 If one assumes that the air gap is zero, the
equation for the magnetic circuit can be expressed
as:

 The reluctance ℜ limits the flux in a magnetic

circuit just as resistance limits the current in an
electric circuit.
 By writing the mmf in terms of current, the total

magnetic flux linking by the entire n number of

turns can be expressed as:

17
Contd…

Figure 2.14: A basic inductive

displacement sensor

 The presence of the air gap causes a large

increase in circuit reluctance and a corresponding
decrease in the flux.
 Hence, a small variation in the air gap results in a

measurable change in inductance.

18
Contd…
 The self inductance L of the coil, which is
described as the total flux (Ψ weber) per unit
current for that particular coil is given by;

 where

19
A, Variable inductance (variable reluctance)
displacement sensors
 A typical variable-reluctance displacement sensor
is illustrated in Figure 2.15.
 The sensor consists of three elements:
 ferromagnetic core in the shape of a semicircular

ring, a variable air gap, and a ferromagnetic

plate(Armature).
 The total reluctance of the magnetic circuit is the

sum of the individual reluctances:

where ℜC, ℜG, and ℜA are the reluctances of the

core, air gap, and armature, respectively
20
Contd…

Figure 2.15: A typical single-coil, variable-

reluctance displacement sensor. 21
Contd…
The length of flux path in the core is taken as πR.
 The cross-sectional area is assumed to be

uniform, with a value of πr2.

 The total length of the flux path in air is 2d, and it

is assumed that there is no fringing or bending of
the flux through the air gap, such that the cross-
sectional area of the flux path in air will be close to
that of the cross section of the core.

 The length of an average central flux path in the

armature is 2R.

22
Contd…
 The calculation of the appropriate cross section
area of the armature is difficult;
◦ but it may be approximated to 2rt, where t is the
thickness of the armature.
 All parameters are constant except the

independent variable the air gap.

 Hence, it can be simplified as;

 Using and

23
Contd…
 The values of L0 and α can be determined
mathematically:
 They depend on the core geometry, permeability,

etc., as explained above.

 The reluctance of the coil is dependent on the

single variable i.e air gap distance d.

 From the equation; It can be seen that the

relationship between L and d is nonlinear.
 But this problem is often overcome by using the

push-pull or differential displacement sensor.

24
B, Differential(push-pull) Reluctance
Displacement sensor
 This consists of an armature moving between two
identical cores, separated by a fixed distance 2a.

 The relationship between L1, L2 and displacement x

is still non-linear.
 But if the sensor is incorporated into the a.c.

deflection bridge;
◦ Then the overall relationship between bridge out
of balance voltage and x is linear.
25
Contd…

Figure 2.16: Differential or push/pull reluctance

displacement sensor and Bridge for inductive
push-pull displacement sensor.
26
C, Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Sensor.
 LVDT is the most commonly used sensor for displacement
measurement applications.
 It is a transformer consisting a single primary winding and

two secondary windings wound on a tubular ferromagnetic

former.
 The secondary windings is connected in such a way that the

output is the difference of them.

 With the core moving V and V change with core position
1 2
X.
 The output voltage and the displacement have a linear

relationship.

27
Contd…
 An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the
magnetic coupling between the primary and the two
secondary.
 When the core is in the center, the voltage induced in the

two secondary winding is equal. This position is called “null

position”
 When the core is moved in one direction from center, the

voltage induced in one winding increase and that in the other

is decreased..
· The output voltage is a function of the core’s displacement.
· Widely used for translating linear motion into an electrical
signal

28
 Figure 2.17 : the linear variable differential transformer (a)
Construction
(b) Schematic diagram (c) Output voltage vs displacement

Another One advantage of the LVDT over the inductive

bridge-type transducer is that it produces higher
output voltage for small changes in core position. 29
CONTD.

30
LVDT – Applications
 To Measure linear mechanical displacement.
◦ Provides resolution about 0.05mm, operating range from
 0.1mm to  300 mm, accuracy of  0.5% of full-scale
reading
◦ The input ac excitation of LVDT can range in frequency
from 50 Hz to 20kHz.
◦
 Used to measure position in control systems and
precision manufacturing.

 Can also be used to measure force, pressure,

acceleration, etc..

3
LVDT – Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
 LVDT can be combined
with a Bourdon tube
 LVDT converts

displacement into an
electrical signal
 The signal can be

displayed on an
electrical device
calibrated in terms of
pressure

Figure 2.18: LVDT – Bourdon Tube

Pressure Gauge 32
LVDT and Bellow Combination pressure gauge

 Bellows produce small displacement

 LVDT produces an output voltage in response

to change in displacement.
Figure 2.19: LVDT – Bourdon
Tube Pressure Gauge

3
Active Sensors and Applications
1, Electromagnetic sensing elements

 These elements are used for the measurement of

linear and angular velocity and are based on
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

 This states that if the flux N linked by a conductor

is changing with time, then a back e.m.f. is
induced in the conductor with magnitude equal to
the rate of change of flux, i.e.

34
Contd…
 In an electromagnetic sensing element the change
in flux is produced by the motion being
investigated;

 This means that the induced e.m.f. depends on the

linear or angular velocity of the motion.

 A common example of an electromagnetic sensor

is the variable reluctance tacho generator for
measuring angular velocity.

35
Variable reluctance tachogenerator
 Variable reluctance tachogenerator consists of a
toothed wheel of ferromagnetic material (attached
to the rotating shaft) and a coil wound onto a
permanent magnet, extended by a soft iron pole
piece.
 The wheel moves in close proximity to the pole

piece, causing the flux linked by the coil to change

with time, thereby inducing an e.m.f. in the coil.
 The magnitude of the e.m.f. can be calculated by

considering the magnetic circuit formed by the

permanent magnet, air gap and wheel.
 The m.m.f. is constant with time and depends on

the field strength of the permanent magnet.

36
Contd…
 The reluctance of the circuit will depend on the
width of the air gap between the wheel and pole
piece.
 When a tooth is close to the pole piece the

reluctance is minimum but will increase as the

tooth moves away.
 The reluctance is Maximum when a ‘gap’ is

adjacent to the pole piece but falls again as the

next tooth approaches the pole piece.
 Figure 2.20: shows the resulting cyclic variation in

reluctance with angular rotation θ.

 From the equation of magnetic circuit the flux in

the circuit is given by:

37
Contd…
 And the total flux N linked by a coil of n turns is:

Figure 2.20: Variable reluctance

tachogenerator, angular variations
in reluctance and flux. 38
Contd…
 So that N is inversely proportional to the reluctance
and the corresponding variation of flux N with  is
also shown in Figure 2.20.
 We see that a reluctance minimum corresponds to

a flux maximum and vice versa.


 This relation may be approximated by;

 Where a is the mean flux, b is the amplitude of the

flux variation and m is the number of teeth.

39
Contd…
 The induced e.m.f. is given by:

 Thus the output signal for the variable reluctance

tachogenerator is given by:

40
Contd…
 So ωr can be found from either the amplitude or
the frequency of the signal.

 Using the frequency system, the number of cycles

in a given time is counted to give a digital signal
corresponding to the angular velocity.

 A variable reluctance tachogenerator is

incorporated in the turbine flow meter to give an
accurate measurement of volume flow rate or total
volume of fluid.

41
 2, Thermoelectric (Thermocouple)
 Thermoelectricity is the relationship between
the temperature of a substance and electrical
energy.
 If two different dissimilar metals A and B are

joined together and, subjected to

temperature at their junction;
 There is a difference in electrical potential

across the junction called the Junction

potential.
Thermoelectric principles
 Change in temp. lead to voltage generation
 Application of voltage leads to change in

temp. 42
Contd…
 The generation of voltage is by see back effect:
when any conductor is subjected to a thermal
gradient, it will generate a voltage.
 This is now known as the thermoelectric effect or

see back effect.

 That difference increases with temperature, and

is between 1 and 70 microvolt per degree Celsius

(µV/°C) for standard metal combinations.
 The voltage is not generated at the junction of

the two metals of the thermocouple but rather

along that portion of the length of the two
dissimilar metals that is subjected to a
temperature gradient.
43
Contd…
 This junction potential depends on the metals A
and B and the temperature T °C of the junction, and
is given by a power series of the form:

 The values of constants a1, a2, etc., depend on the

metals A and B.

 A thermocouple is a closed circuit consisting of

two junctions, at different temperatures T1 and T2
44
Contd…
 If a high-impedance voltmeter is introduced into

the circuit, so that current flow is negligible;

 Then the measured e.m.f. is, to a close

approximation, the difference of the junction

potentials, i.e.

 Thus the measured e.m.f. depends on the

temperatures T1, T2 of both junctions.

45
Contd…
 In the following discussion T1 will be the
temperature to be measured, i.e. the temperature
of the measurement junction, and T2 will be the
temperature of the reference junction.

 In order to accurately infer T1 from the measured

e.m.f., the reference junction temperature T2 must
be known.

Thermocouple laws
 To ensure proper installation and measurement often it is

necessary to consider the laws governing thermocouples

46
Contd…
Law 1: Law of homogeneous material

statesthat the e.m.f. of a given thermocouple depends only on

the temperatures of the junctions and is independent of the
temperatures of the wires connecting the junctions.

The voltage generated is function of junction temperature T 1

and T2 and independent of the temperatures of the wires
connecting the junction.

This is important in industrial installations, where the leads

connecting measurement and reference junctions may be
exposed to large changes in ambient temperature.
47
Contd…
 Law 2 states that if a third metal C is introduced
into A (or B) then, provided the two new junctions
are at the same temperature (T3);
◦ the e.m.f. is unchanged.
 This means that a voltmeter can be introduced into

the circuit without affecting the voltage produced.

 Law 3 states that If a third metal C is inserted

between A and B at either junction, provided the
two new junctions AC and CB are both at the same
temperature (T1 or T2), then the e.m.f. is
unchanged.

48
Contd…
 This means that at the measurement junction,
wires A and B can be soldered or brazed together
with a third metal without affecting the e.m.f.

 A voltage measuring device can be introduced at

the reference junction again without affecting the
measurement.
 Law 4 (law of intermediate metals) can be used, for

example, to deduce the e.m.f. of a copper–iron

(AB ) thermocouple, given the e.m.f. values for
copper–constantan (AC) and constantan–iron (CB )
thermocouples.

49
Contd…
 The fifth law (law of intermediate temperatures) is
used in interpreting e.m.f. measurements. For a
given pair of metals we have:

 Where T3 is the intermediate temperature, If T2 = 0

°C, then;

50
Contd…

Figure 2.21:
Thermocouple
principles.

51
Thermocouple is one of the most frequently used temperature transducers
which are very rugged, inexpensive, providing accurate measurement over a
wide temperature ranges.
Often they generate a very low voltage, but they can also connected in series to
form the so called thermopile.
They are widely used for temperature measurement ranging from home,
hospitals to industry, in the ranges from -3000C to 20000C.
Some of their applications are
 in industries, such as furnace, measuring temperature of liquid metals
and even in nuclear reactors,
 in medical applications such as monitoring internal temperature during
operation,
 To monitor or record temperature with data acquisition systems or data
52
 Solar cells or photovoltaic cells
Solar cells are semiconductor devices which produce
electric energy when illuminated; usually silicon
element is used as solar cell.
 Often DC Voltage is generated that is proportional to
the incident light.
Photovoltaic cells are used for production of electrical
energy and as sensing elements they are also used for
sensing light intensity

53
Photoelectric Transducers

· Versatile tools for detecting radiant energy

or light
· Are extensively used in instrumentation
· Most known photosensitive devices include
1. Photovoltaic cells
· Semiconductor junction devices used to convert
radiation energy into electrical energy.

54
Photoelectric Transducers …
2. Photo diode
· A diode that is normally reverse-biased=> Current is very low
· When a photon is absorbed, electrons are freed so current
starts to flow, i.e., the diode is forward biased.

· Has an opening in its case containing a lens which focuses

incident light on the PN junction

3. Photo transistor
· Also operate in reverse-biased
· Responds to light intensity on its lens instead of base current
5
 Piezo electric sensors
Piezoelectric crystals are special materials which
produce charge distribution when they are subjected to an
external pressure or force.
These is based on the natural phenomenon of certain non-
metals and electronic compounds, materials like Quartz,
Rochelle Salt, barium titanate develop electric charge when
subjected to or force.
The effect is reversible i.e when a charge is applied they
are deformed.
This phenomenon is known as piezo electric effect. 56
Contd…
 “Piezo” is a Greek word meaning for or pressure.
 The mechanical deformation producing electric charge is

basis of many instruments for measuring acceleration,

force and torque.
 A piezoelectric crystal is placed between two plate

electrodes
 Application of force on such a plate will develop a stress

and a corresponding deformation

Figure 2.22:
Piezo electric
sensors

57
Contd…
 Induced charge is proportional to the impressed
force
Q=dF
d= charge sensitivity (C/m2)/(N/m2) =
proportionality constant

 Output voltage E= gtP proportional to the pressure.

◦ t= crystal thickness
◦ P = impressed pressure
◦ g=voltage sensitivity (V/m)/(N/m2)
5
Discrete Output Sensors: Shaft
Encoders
 Any transducer that generates a coded reading of a
measurement can be termed as discrete sensor.

 Shaft Encoders are discrete (digital) transducers

that are used for measuring angular displacements
and velocities.
Optical shaft encoders
 Optical shaft encoders produce information about
angular displacement in digital form.
 This is useful because a digital output is

compatible with computers and other digital

electronic systems. 59
Contd…
 An optical shaft encoder is a transducer in which
linear or angular displacement varies the
transmission of light from a source to a detector.

 Shaft Encoders can be classified into two

categories depending on the nature and method of
interpretation of the output;

 Incremental optical shaft Encoders and Absolute

optical shaft Encoders.

60
Incremental optical shaft encoder
 The incremental encoder produces an output
signal showing that some displacement of a shaft
has taken place.
 Further output signals are counted and from these

the angular displacement relative to the starting

position can be measured.
 The absolute encoder produces an output signal

which gives the shaft displacement from a null

position.

Figure 2.23: Incremental

shaft encoder

61
Contd…
 The incremental shaft encoder consists of a disc
rigidly attached to the shaft whose displacement is
to be measured.
 The disc has a number of equally spaced slots

through which a beam of light can pass.

 A light source, consisting of two

light emitting diodes (LEDs), is aligned with the

disc.
 If the light from the LEDs is uninterrupted, it is

detected by the light detectors.

 The order in which the light is interrupted indicates

the direction of rotation.
62
Contd…
 Figure 2.24 shows a typical incremental shaft
encoder disc.
 As the shaft rotates, the light shines through the

equally spaced windows in the disc, and is blocked

by the opaque sections of the disc.
 Hence a pulsed light output from the light

detectors is produced.

 The LEDs and detectors are arranged so that, as

the disc rotates, the phase difference between the
pulse trains from the detectors shows the direction
of rotation.

63
Contd…
 The number of pulses detected is proportional to
the angle through which the shaft and disc travel.
 The angular displacement of the shaft can be

determined relative to an arbitrarily selected

starting point.
 Some encoders include an extra slot at a different

radius, with its own light emmitter/ detecter, to

provide a final reference for disc position.

Figure 2.24: Incremental

shaft encoder disk.

64
Contd…
 The resolution of the disc depends on how many
windows it contains.
 The more windows the disc has, the higher the

resolution.
 Resolution is determined by dividing 2π radians or

360° by the number of windows in the disc.

 The number of windows on the rotating disc can

vary from 60 to well over 1000 with multi-tracks,

allowing very good resolution to be achieved.
 Typical resolutions of optical incremental shaft

encoders are 0.0034 radians (0.2°) to 0.102 radians

(6°).

65
Absolute optical shaft encoder
 Figure 2.25 shows a typical optical absolute shaft
encoder.
 It differs from the incremental encoder in that the

output signal it produces is in binary or coded

form.
 This provides an absolute measurement of the

rotary position of the shaft.

Figure 2.25: absolute

shaft encoder

66
Contd…
 A rotating disc, with a number of concentric tracks,
is attached to the shaft.
 A collection of light sources (usually LEDs) are

aligned with the tracks of the disc.

 A light detector is similarly aligned with the disc

and beams to detect the light which passes
through the disc.

 A 'closed' window, which is opaque and so

prevents light from the LEDs reaching the detector,
represents a binary '0'.

67
Contd…
 An 'open' window, which allows light from the LEDs
through to the detector, indicates a binary '1'.
 The combinations of open and closed windows

follow a binary sequence from '0' to (2n)–1, where n

is the number of tracks.

Figure 2.26: absolute

shaft encoder disc

68
Contd…
 The binary absolute shaft encoder disc shown in
Figure 2.26 has four tracks and consequently there
are four bits in each binary number.
 The number of positions which can be detected is

16 (which is 24), which means the binary sequence

runs from 0 to 15 (which is 0 to 24-1).
 The resolution, determined by dividing 2π radians

or 360° by the number of windows in the disc (in

this case 16), is 0.393 radians or 22.5°.
 If we use a rotating disc with eight tracks, giving

eight bits in each binary number, the number of

positions that can be detected is 28 = 256.
 The resolution is then 0.024 radians or 1.41°.

69
Contd…
 In practice there are problems with this type of
binary absolute encoder.
 The exact alignment of the window edges in each

track is difficult to achieve, and consequently

errors are sometimes introduced.
 These errors occur at the boundaries between

windows.
 A major disadvantage of the binary absolute

encoder is that on many occasions more than one

window will change state for one increment of the
disc.

70
Contd…
 This is because of the nature of the binary number
system.
 Examples of this are: 0011 to 0100 (3 to 4 in base

10); from 0111 to 1000 (7 to 8 in base 10); and so

on.
 The most significant change is from 1111 to 0000

(15 to 0 in base 10).

 Hence if the absolute encoder system misreads one

window, it can lead to serious errors in position

measurements.
 To overcome this Gray Code was developed.
 This produces a sequence where only one 'bit' or

'window' changes it state as the sequence

progresses. 71
Contd…
 Gray code is a digital code in which only one bit at
a time changes as the value incrementally
increases or decreases.

 Optical encoders have applications in numerically

controlled machines, such as computer controlled
lathes or milling machines.

 They are also used in robotics and positioning

systems.
 A common application of relative optical encoders

is in computer 'mice'.
72
PIEZORESISTIVE SENSORS
 The piezoresistive effect was defined as the change in
resistivity ρ of a material with applied mechanical strain
e;

◦ and is represented by the term (1/e) (Δρ/ρ) in the equation

for gauge factor of a strain gauge.

 A piezoresistive sensor is made from semiconductor

material.
 The resistance of this varies greatly when the sensor is

compressed or stretched.
 This is frequently used as a strain gauge, where it produces a

significantly higher gauge factor than that given by metal

73
Contd…
 Proper piezoelectric strain gauges, which are
alternatively known as semiconductor strain
gauges;
◦ produces most (90%) of their output through
piezoresistive effects, and only a small proportion
of the output is due to dimensional changes in
the sensor.

74
Optical proximity sensor
 Optical proximity sensors use optical and electronic
means for object detection.
 Red or infrared light is used.

 Semiconductor light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are

particularly reliable sources of red or infrared light.

 They are small and rugged, have a long service life and can
be simply modulated.

 Photodiodes or phototransistors are used as a receiver.

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Contd…
 Red light has the advantage that the light beam can be seen
during adjustment of the optical axes of the proximity
switch.
 Polymer optical fibers can also be used because of their low

attenuation of light of this wave- length .

 Three different types of optical proximity switch

are differentiated:

◦ One-way light barrier

◦ Reflective light barrier
◦ Diffuse reflective optical sensor

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One-way Light Barrier Optical Sensor
 The one-way light barrier has spatially separate
transmitter and receiver units.
 The parts are mounted in such a way that the transmitter

beam is directed at the receiver.

 The output is switched if the beam is interrupted.

Figure 2.27: One-way Light

Barrier Optical Sensor
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Reflective light barrier optical sensor:
 In the reflective light barrier, the transmitter and
receiver are mounted together in one housing.

 The reflector is mounted in such a way that the light beam

transmitted by the transmitter is practically completely
reflected to the receiver.

 The output is switched if the beam is interrupted.

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Contd…

Figure 2.28. Reflective light barrier optical sensor:

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Diffuse reflective optical sensor:
 In the diffuse reflective optical sensor, the transmitter and
receiver are mounted together in one unit.

 If the light hits a reflective object, it is redirected to the

receiver and causes the output of the sensor to switch.

 Because of the functional principle, the diffuse reflective

optical sensor can only be used;

◦ If the material or machine part to be detected is highly

reflective (for example polished metal surfaces, bright
paint).
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Contd…

Figure 2.29: Diffuse reflective optical sensor:

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THANK YOU

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