Chapter One: sampling and sampling

Distribution
ZABIHULLAH ISLAMI ECONOMIST

12/20/2023 Zabihullah Islami Economist 1

 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sampling is a technique/procedure used for selecting a small representative

part (sample) from a given population/universe. Sampling procedures
are broadly divided into probability and non-probability sampling.

In addition, each of the probability sampling and non-probability sampling

are further divided into different types of sampling and are used for
the selection of sample from a population depending on the nature of
a population.
The various sampling techniques and their further classification are given
in Figure 1.

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 Sampling
Techniques

Non-
Probability
probability
Sampling
Sampling

Simple Stratified Systematic

Cluster Quota Purposive
random random random
sampling sampling sampling
sampling sampling sampling

Figure 1: Classification of Sampling Methods

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 Probability Sampling
“Sampling is defined to be probability sampling if each and every unit of a
population has non-zero probability of being included in the sample”.
Following are the main characteristics of probability sampling:
 In probability sampling every individual of the population has equal
probability to be taken into the sample.
 Probability sample may be representative of the population.
 The observations (data) of the probability sample are used for the
inferential purpose.
 Inferential or parametric tests are used for analyzing the data of probability
sample.
 There is a risk for drawing conclusions from probability sample.

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Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is a technique used for selecting a simple random
sample. A simple random sample is one in which each element of the
population has an equal and independent chance of being included in
the sample.

1. Lottery method

2. Method of random number table

This type of sampling is appropriate and provide a representative sample

(and hence reliable estimates of the population parameters) if the
population under study contain homogeneous units.

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 Systematic Random Sampling

This method requires the complete information about the population. There
should be a list of information's of all the individuals of the population in any
systematic way. Now we decide the size of the sample.

Let sample size = n, and population size = N

Now we select each N/n th individual from the list and thus we have the

desired size of a sample which is known as systematic sample. Thus for

this technique of sampling, population should be arranged in any

systematic way.

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Example: Let us consider that there are 20 households in a locality and one is interested to
select a sample of size 5 by using a systematic random sampling technique. Which
units of the population be included in the sample?

Solution: To select the sampling units, we take the following steps:

1. Assign numbers from 1 to 20 to the units of population i.e.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20

2. Calculate the sampling interval (K) as: K = N/n = 20/5 = 4

3. Select the sampling interval (4) i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4 and draw one unit randomly. Let the
selected unit is 2, then the remaining units will be taken in a systematic way as:

2 + K, 2 + 2K, 2 +3K and 2 + 4K. Hence the units (households) selected will be: 2, 6,
10, 14 and 18. The sample selected is called systematic random sampling, and the
procedure which is used for selection of such a sample is called systematic random
sampling.

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 Example: A locality consists of 90 households distributed in to 9 streets
each containing 10 households. Select a systematic sample of size 15.
Sampling interval (K) = N/n = 90/15 = 6. let the first selected household is
5, then the remaining households that could be included in the sample
are highlighted as blue.

I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
II 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
III 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
IV 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
V 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
VI 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
VII 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
VIII 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
IX 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

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 Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is used as a method for selection of a sample

when the population under study is heterogeneous.

When employing this technique, the researcher divides the population in to

different strata (sub groups-called homogeneous groups) on the basis of

some characteristics and from each of these smaller homogeneous

groups (strata) predetermined number of units are drawn randomly,

called stratified random sample. The procedure used for selecting a

stratified random sample is called stratified random sampling.

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It is important to mention that strata are made in such a way that within the

strata there is no heterogeneity in the units (they are internally

homogeneous) but with in the strata there must be heterogeneity. For

example, the following data indicates one of the example of stratification

i.e. dividing the teaching staff into different groups based on their

designation. Similarly, taking the case industrial sector, over there one

can make strata based on the types of industries etc.

Teaching Assistant Associate

staff Lecturer Professor Professor Professor

Industry Oil Fiber Matches steel

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Stratified sample may be drawn by using one of the following methods:

1. Equal allocation method

2. Disproportionate stratified sampling.

3. Proportionate stratified sampling.

4. Optimum allocation stratified sampling.

 In equal allocation method, equal number of sampling units are selected
from each of the sub-population.
 Disproportionate sampling means that the size of the sample in each unit is
not proportionate to the size of the unit but depends upon considerations

involving personal judgment and convenience.

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 Proportionate sampling refers to the selection from each sampling unit of
a sample that is proportionate to the size of the sub-population (strata).
Advantages of this procedure include representativeness with respect to
variables used as the basis of classifying categories and increased chances
of being able to make comparisons between strata.
 Optimum allocation stratified sampling is representative as well as
comprehensive than other stratified samples. It refers to selecting units
from each stratum should be in proportion to the corresponding stratum
of the population, in addition to the information of cost and variation
involved. Thus sample obtained is known as optimum allocation stratified
sample.

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Proportional Allocation Method
Proportional allocation method uses the following formula:

n
ni   N i
N
where,
n  required sample size
N  Population size
N i  Size of i th strata
ni  sample size to be taken from i th strata

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Example: A researcher was interested to study the perception of employees
of an educational organization regarding their job satisfaction and
organizational justice. To obtain a representative sample of size 80, he/she
divided all the employees into four different groups (strata) as given below.
How many employees will be selected from each of the group by using a
proportional allocation method.
Assistant Associate
Group Lecturer Professor Professor Professor

Number 150 75 50 25

Proportional allocation method uses the following formulae for selecting the
number of units from each of the strata:

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 n
ni   Ni
N
So, by using this formula, the number of sampling units to be taken from each
of the strata (group) are given as follow:

It indicates that to select

Group Number Formula Sampled staff a sample of 80 staff

150 = N1 n/N*N1
members, 40 be taken
Lecturer 40
Assistant
from lecturers, 20 from
Professor 75 = N2 n/N*N2 20 Assistant Professors, 13
Associate from Associate
Professor 50 = N3 n/N*N3 13.33 = 13
Processor and 7 from
Professor 25 = N4 n/N*N4 6.67 = 7 Professors.
300 = N

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 Non-probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is also called non-random sampling. In this type of sampling,
the units from a population are selected purposively (non-randomly) keeping in view
certain . It is classified in to purposive sampling and Quota sampling.

Purposive Sampling
The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to be
representative of the total population. The Idea is to pick out the sample in relation
to some criterion, which are considered important for the particular study. This
method is appropriate when the study places special emphasis upon the control of
certain specific variables. For example, to check the general opinions of the
company owners about the implementation of new tax etc. In this case only owners
will be selected as a sample to know their opinions about the stated problem. Other
than owner, e.g. workers of the company (any one) will not fulfill the objective of
the research study.
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Quota Sampling

In this case, the population is classified into several categories: on the basis of

judgement or assumption or the previous knowledge, the proportion of

population falling into each category is decided. Thereafter a quota of cases

to be drawn is fixed and the observer is allowed to sample as he/she likes.

Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in Municipal surveys.

This type of sampling is almost used in admission at University level, job

requirements etc.

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 Characteristics of a Good Sample

The following (more or less) are the main characteristics of a good sample:

1. A good sample is the true representative of the population.

2. A good sample is free from bias.

3. A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate estimates or statistics and does
not involve errors.

4. A good sample is comprehensive in nature.

5. A good sample is also economical in terms of time and cost involved in its selection.

6. The subjects of good sample are easily approachable.

7. The size of good sample is such that it yields an accurate results.

8. A good sample makes the research work more feasible.

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 SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION

Sampling With and Without Replacement

Sampling is defined to be with replacement (SWR) if a unit

is selected from a population, observed and then returned to
the same population before the next draw. In such a case, the
population size remain same and a unit can be selected again
and again. All possible samples in case of SWR = N n .
On the other hand, sampling is said to without replacement
(SWOR), if a unit is selected from a population, observed
and not returned back to the population and next draw is made.
 N N!
In such a case, all possible samples =   
 n  (N-n)! n!
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Example: Select all possible samples of size 2 without replacement (SWOR)
from a population given below. Also compute the mean of each sample.

2, 4, 6, 8 and 10
 N N! 5!
Solution: Here, N = 5 and n = 2. All possible samples =   
 n  (N-n)! n! (5-2)! 2!
 10

Sample Sampl Sample

S.No. Sample Mean S.No. e Mean

1 (2, 4) 3 6 (4, 8) 6
2 (2, 6) 4 7 (4, 10) 7

3 (2, 8) 5 8 (6, 8) 7
4 (2, 10) 6 9 (6, 10) 8

5 (4, 6) 5 10 (8, 10) 9

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Example: Select all possible samples of size 2 with replacement (SWR) from
a population containing 4 units given below. Also compute the mean of
each sample. 2, 4, 6, and 8

Solution: Here, N = 4 and n = 2. All possible samples = N n = 42 = 16

Sample Sampl Sample
S.No. Sample Mean S.No. e Mean
1 (2, 2) 2 9 (6, 2) 4
2 (2, 4) 3 10 (6, 4) 5
3 (2, 6) 4 11 (6, 6) 6
4 (2, 8) 5 12 (6, 8) 7
5 (4, 2) 3 13 (8, 2) 5
6 (4, 4) 4 14 (8, 4) 6
7 (4, 6) 5 15 (8, 6) 7
8 (4, 8) 6 16 (8, 8) 8
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Sampling Distribution of Mean
Sampling distribution of mean is a probability distribution of all possible
sample means (statistic) that are drawn with or without replacement of the
same size from a given population. Sampling distribution of mean has the
following properties:
1. the mean of the sampling distribution of mean (X), denoted by μ X
is always equal to population mean (μ), i.e. μ X  μ (regardless of sampling)
2. the variance of the sampling distribution of mean (X), denoted by σ 2X is
expressed as:
2 N n
(a). Var (X) = σ 
2
( ) [ if sampling is done WOR]
X
n N 1
2
(b). Var (X) = σ 
2
X
[ if sampling is performed WR]
n

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Sampling Distribution of Difference Between Means

Sampling distribution of difference between means (X1 -X 2 ) is the

probability distribution of all possible differences (X1 -X 2 ) of sample
means. It has the following properties:
1. the mean of the sampling distribution of difference between means (X1 -X 2 ),
denoted by μ X1  X2 is always equal to the difference between population means
i.e. μ X1  X2  μ1 -μ 2 (regardless of sampling)
2. the variance of the sampling distribution of difference between means (X1 -X 2 ),
denoted by σ 2X1  X2 is expressed as:
 12 N1  n1  22 N 2  n2
(a). σ 2
X1  X 2
 ( ) ( ) [ SWOR]
n1 N1  1 n2 N2  1
 12  22
(b). σ 2
X1  X 2
  [ SWR]
n1 n2

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Standard Error of Mean and Difference Between Means

Standard error of mean is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of sampling mean.
It is denoted by SE(X) or  X and is expressed as:
 N n
(a). SE(X) =  X  [ if sampling is done WOR]
n N  1

(b). SE(X) =  X  [ if sampling is performed WR]
n
The standard error of difference between means (X1 -X 2 ), denoted by σ X X or SE(X1 -X 2 )
1 2

is expressed as:
 12 N1  n1  22 N 2  n2
(a). σ X1  X2  ( ) ( ) [ if sampling is done WOR]
n1 N1  1 n2 N 2  1
 12  22
(b). σ X1 X2   [ if sampling is done WR]
n1 n2

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Example: Using the data; μ = 10,  2  16, n  4, N  15, calculate the mean and

variance of the sampling distribution of sample mean if sampling is performed:

i. with replacement (WR)

ii. without replacement (WOR)

Solution: (i). According to the property sampling distribution of sample mean, we

have μ X = μ = 10 and

2
Variance (X) =  X2   16 / 4  4
n
(ii). In this case, also μ X = μ = 10 and

 2  N  n  16  16  4 
Variance (X) =   2
     4(12 /15)  3.2
X
n  N  1  4  16  1 

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Example: using the data: Population-I: μ1 = 60,  12  16, n1  3, N1  15
Population-II: μ 2 = 55,  22  25, n2  3, N 2  20
Calculate the mean (μ X1  X2 ), variance ( X2 X ) and statndard error ( X X )
1 2 1 2

of the sampling distribution of difference between means if sampling is performed:

i ). with replacement (WR) , ii). without replacement (WOR)
Solution: (i). According to the property we have:
have μ X1  X2 = μ1 -μ 2 = 60-55 = 5 [for both SWR and SWOR]
 12  22 16 25
Var (X1 -X 2 ) = σ 2
X1  X 2
  =  = 41/3 = 13.67
n1 n2 3 3
SE (X1 -X 2 ) = σ X1  X2  13.67  3.69
 12 N1  n1  22 N 2  n2 16 15  3 25 20  3
(ii). σ 2
X1  X 2
 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n1 N1  1 n2 N2  1 3 15  1 3 20  1
16 12 25 17

( )  ( )  4.57  7.46  12.03
3 14 3 19
SE (X1 -X 2 ) = σ X1  X2  12.03  3.47
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 PROPORTION
Population proportion (P) may be identified with the population mean where
mean is obtained from the units whose possible values are either “0” or “1”,
i.e N

Y i
X number of units having a specified characteristic
P i=
 
N N Total number of units
X
ˆ
The sample proportion, denoted by p is defined as: p =ˆ
n
Generally , P is called the proportion of sucess but the proportion of
failure is denoted by "q" so that P + q = 1 OR pˆ + qˆ = 1
Example: Population size = 200, Number of educated (X) = 50, then proportion
of educated peoples will be = P = 50/200 = 0.25, but the proportion of
uneducated peoples = q = 1-P = 1- 0.25 = 0.75
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 Sampling Distribution of Sample Proportion
Sampling distribution of proportion is a probability distribution of all possible
sample proportion that are drawn with or without replacement of the same
size from a given population. Sampling distribution of proportion has the
following properties:
1. the mean of the sampling distribution of proportion, denoted by μ p̂
is always equal to population proportion (P), i.e. μ p̂  P (regardless of sampling)
2. the variance of the sampling distribution of proportion, denoted by σ 2p̂ is
expressed as:
pq
ˆ = σ 2p̂ 
(a). Var (p) [ if sampling is performed WR]
n
pq N  n
ˆ = σ 2p̂ 
(b). Var (p) ( ) [ if sampling is done WOR]
n N 1

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 Sampling Distribution of Difference Between Proportions

Sampling distribution of difference between proportions (pˆ 1 -pˆ 2 ) is the

probability distribution of all possible differences (pˆ 1 -pˆ 2 ) of sample
proportions. It has the following properties:
1. the mean of the sampling distribution of difference between proportion,
denoted by μ pˆ1 -pˆ 2 is always equal to the difference between population proportions
i.e. μ pˆ1 -pˆ 2  P1 -P2 (regardless of sampling)
2. the variance of the sampling distribution of difference between proportions (pˆ 1 -pˆ 2 ),
denoted by σ 2pˆ1 -pˆ 2 is expressed as:
pq N1  n1 pq N 2  n2
(a). σ 2pˆ1 -pˆ 2  ( ) ( ) [ SWOR]
n1 N1  1 n2 N 2  1
pq pq
(b). σ 2pˆ1 -pˆ 2   [ SWR]
n1 n2

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Example: A survey was conducted to know the opinion of people about the use
newly launched product of a commercial firm. A sample of 500 households
were interviewed in a certain locality having 2000 households. It was
observed that 300 out of 500 were in favour of the product (like the product).
Calculate the variance of the sampling distribution of sample proportion, if
sampling is performed without replacement.

The sample proportion, denoted by pˆ is defined as:

X 300
ˆp =   0.6 and qˆ  1- pˆ  1  0.6  0.4
n 500
ˆ ˆ N n
pq (0.6  0.4) 2000  500
Var (p) = σ p̂ 
ˆ 2
( ) ( ) = 0.00036
n N 1 500 2000  1
ˆ = 0.00036  0.0189
SE (p)

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Example: A survey was conducted to the opinions of
patients about the services of two hospitals. A sample of
1000 patients were interviewed in certain hospital having
5000 patients it was observed that 700 out of 1000 in favor
of services and in another hospital a sample of 1500
patients were interviewed in certain hospital having 6000
patients it was observed that 1000 out of 1500 in favor of
services. Calculate the variance of the sampling
distribution of samples proportions if sampling performed
with or without replacement.

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