Cell, Tissues & Membrane.

By
Amjad Ali
RN, BScN
Allied ION,HS.
Objectives.
At the completion of this unit, learners will be able to:
1. Describe the structure and functions of a cell
2. Discuss the process of cell division i.e. mitosis and
meiosis.
3. Briefly discuss the importance of mitosis & meiosis.
4. Classify the tissues of the body on the basis of structure,
location and function into the following four major types.
A. Epithelial tissue
B. Connective tissue
C. Muscle tissue
D. Nervous tissue
Definition.
• The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room) is
the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of
all known organisms.
• A cell is the smallest unit of life.
• Cells are often called the "building blocks of life".
• The study of cells is called cell biology, cellular
biology, or cytology.
Conti.
• Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke an
English Scientist in 1665 by observing thin
slice of cork under the microscope. He
described small spaces surrounded by cell
wall, later Robert Brown discovered the
nucleus of the cell in 1831.
Cell Theory
• Cell theory, first developed in 1839
by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann and this was modified by Rudolf
Virchow in 1855, states that
1. all organisms are composed of one or more cells,
2. cells are the fundamental unit of structure and
function in all living organisms,
3. all cells come from pre-existing cells.
Types of cell.
Cells are of two types:
• Eukaryotic, which contain a true nucleus,
eukaryotes can be either single-celled
or multicellular.
• Prokaryotic, which do not contain a
true nucleus . Prokaryotes are single-celled
organisms.
Cell Composition.
• Cells consist
of cytoplasm/
protoplasm enclosed
within a membrane,
which contains many
organelles.
• Cytoplasm (cytosol + cell
organelles )
• Protoplasm (cytosol +cell
organelles + nucleus)
Conti.
• A cell consists of a plasma membrane
enclosing a number of organelles suspended
in a watery fluid called cytosol.
• Most of the chemical reactions within a cell
take place in this cytoplasm.
• They include: the nucleus, mitochondria,
ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, Lysosomes and the cytoskeleton
Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane consists of two layers of
phospholipids with proteins, sugars & lipid
(cholesterol) embedded in them.
• The phospholipid bilayer is arranged like a sandwich
with the hydrophilic ‘water loving’ heads aligned on
the outer surfaces of the membrane and the
hydrophobic ‘water hating’ tails forming a central
water-repelling layer.
• These differences influence the transfer of
substances across the membrane.
Nucleus
• It is the largest organelle of the cell. It consists of a
nuclear membrane surrounding the nucleoplasm.
• The nucleus contains the body’s genetic material, in
the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which
directs all its metabolic activities.
• Within the nucleus is a roughly spherical structure
called the nucleolus, which is involved in synthesis
and assembly of the components of ribosomes,
controlling cellular activities and cellular
reproduction
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are membranous, sausage-
shaped structures in the cytoplasm, sometimes
described as the ‘power house’ of the cell.
• They are central to aerobic respiration, the
processes by which chemical energy (ATP) is
made available in the cell.
• The most active cell types have the greatest
number of mitochondria, e.g. liver, muscle and
spermatozoa.
Ribosomes
• These are tiny granules composed of RNA and
protein. They synthesis proteins from amino acids,
using RNA as the template.
• When present in free units or in small clusters in
the cytoplasm, the ribosomes make proteins for
use within the cell.
• Ribosomes are also found on the outer surface of
the nuclear envelope and rough endoplasmic
reticulum where they manufacture proteins for
export from the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive series
of interconnecting membranous canals in the
cytoplasm. There are two types,
A. Smooth ER synthesises lipids and steroid
hormones, and is also associated with the
detoxification of some drugs.
B. Rough ER is studded with ribosomes. These are
the site of synthesis of proteins, some of which
are ‘exported’ from cells, i.e. enzymes and
hormones.
Golgi apparatus
• The Golgi apparatus
consists of stacks of
closely folded flattened
membranous sacs.
• Golgi apparatus
packaged, stored and
release proteins when
needed from
membrane bound
vesicles.
Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are small membranous vesicles
pinched off from the Golgi apparatus.
• They contain a variety of enzymes involved in
breaking down fragments of organelles and
large molecules (e.g. RNA, DNA,
carbohydrates, proteins) inside the cell into
smaller particles that are either recycled, or
extruded from the cell as waste material.
Centrosome
•A centrosome is a cellular structure involved in the
process of cell division.
•There is a pair of centrioles in each cell. Each
centriole has two cylindrical bodies placed at right
angles to each other.
•Transverse section of the centriole shows three
tubules in single group and thus 9 groups of
tubules.
•They help in synthesis of microtubules during cell
division.
Cytoskeleton
It is the skeleton formed of fibres within the
cytoplasm of a cell. It maintains the shape of the
cell and helps in movement of the organelles
present in the cell.
 Microfilaments
 Intermediate filaments
 Microtubules
Conti.
• Microfilaments. These are the smallest fibres. They provide
structural support, maintain the characteristic shape of the cell
and permit contraction, e.g. actin in muscle cells.
• Intermediate filaments are more stable (strongly bound) than
microfilaments, and heterogeneous constituents of the
cytoskeleton. Like actin filaments, they function in the
maintenance of cell-shape by bearing tension
• Microtubules. These are larger contractile protein fibres that
are involved in movement of:
• organelles within the cell
• chromosomes during cell division
• cell extensions
• The human body develops from a single cell
called the zygote, which results from the
fusion of the ovum (female egg cell) and the
spermatozoon (male sex cell). Cell division
follows and, as the fetus grows, cells with
different structural and functional
specializations develop, all with the same
genetic make-up as the zygote
 Tissues
The tissue of the body consist of large
number of cells & performing specialized
functions.

The tissue of the body:

A. Epithelial tissue
B. Connective tissue
C. Muscular tissue
D. Nervous tissue
TYPES OF TISSUES
 A- Epithelial Tissue
An epithelium consist of cells which cover the body
surface or which line hollow organ, tubes or cavities etc.
Function of epithelium
Protection
Secretion
Absorption
• The cells are very closely packed and the intercellular
substances, called the matrix is minimal.
• The cells usually lie on a membrane called basement
membrane.
Types of Epithelium
There are two main classes of epithelium
1. Simple epithelium
2. Stratified epithelium
SIMPLE EPITHELIUM:
Simple epithelium consist of a single layer of cells.
It divided into 4 types,
a) Squamous epithelium
b) Cuboidal/cubical epithelium
c) Columnar
d) ciliated
a) Squamous Epithelium
• Squamous epithelium composed of a single
layer of flattened cells, the cells fit closely
together forming a thin and very smooth
membrane.
• Squamous epithelium is found in
– Alveoli of the lungs
– Lining of the heart
– Lining of the blood vessels
– Lining of the lymph vessels
Simple Squamous cell
Cuboidal/cubical epithelium
• This consists of cube-shaped cells fitting
closely together lying on a basement
membrane.
• It forms the kidney tubules and is found in
some glands such as the thyroid.
• Functions
• Secretion
• absorption
• excretion.
Cuboidal Epithelium
c) Columnar Epithelium
• Columnar epithelium consist of a single layer
of rectangular shaped cell.
• It is found in the lining of organs of alimentary
canal, some cells are involved in absorption
while others secrete mucus.
• The cells which secretes mucus are k/a goblet
cells
Columnar epithelium
d) Ciliated Epithelium
• Ciliated epithelium consist of columnar cells which fine
hair like process, called cilia. (the cilia consist of micro
tubules inside the plasma membrane that extend from
the free border of the columnar cells.
• Ciliated epithelium is found:
– In the lining of fallopian tube
– In the lining of respiratory passages
• Functions
– In fallopian tubes they propel ova towards the uterus.
– In the respiratory tract they propel the mucus towards the
throat.
Stratified/Compound Epithelium
• Stratified epithelia consist of several layers of
cells of various shapes.
• The superficial layer grow up from below.
• Basement membranes are usually absent.
• The main function of stratified epithelium is to
protect underlying structures.
Types
a) Stratified squamous epithelium
b) Transitional epithelium
a) Stratified squamous epithelium
• This is composed of several layers of cells. In
the deepest layers the cells are mainly
columnar and, as they grow towards the
surface, they become flattened and are then
shed.
• They are of two types.
i. Non-keratinized
ii. keratinized
i) Non-keratinized stratified epithelium

It is found on moist surfaces subjected to wear

and tear, and prevents them from drying out,
eg.,
– the conjunctiva of the eyes,
– the lining of the mouth, the pharynx, the
oesophagus,
– the lining of the vagina
ii) Keratinized stratified epithelium
• This is found on dry surfaces subjected to
wear and tear, i.e. skin, hair and nails
• (The surface layer consists of dead epithelial
cells to which protein keratin has been added.
This forms a tough, relatively waterproof
protective layer that prevents drying of the
live cells underneath. The surface layer of skin
is rubbed off and is replaced from below).
Keratinized stratified epithelium
b) Transitional epithelium
• This is composed of several layers of pear-
shaped cells. It lines several parts of the
urinary tract including the bladder and allows
for stretching as the bladder fills.
 B- Connective Tissue
• Connective tissue provide frame work to the body.
• The connective tissue cells are more widely separated
from each other than in epithelial tissues.
• intercellular substance (matrix) is present in
considerably larger amounts.
Functions.
Binding & support
Transport
Protection
insulation
1. Areolar
• Areolar tissue consist of a matrix in which
connective tissue cells (fibroblast) widely separated
by elastic and collagen fibres
• It provides elasticity, tensile strength, connects and
supports other tissues, for example:
under the skin
between muscles
supporting blood vessels and nerves
in the alimentary canal
in glands supporting secretory cells.
2. Adipose tissue
• Adipose tissue consists of fat cells
(adipocytes), containing large fat globules, in a
matrix of areolar tissue.
• It is found
– Supporting kidneys
– Between muscles fibers
– Under the skin where it act as a thermal insulator
3. Elastic Tissue
• There are few cells and the matrix consists
mainly of masses of elastic fibres secreted by
fibroblasts.
• Elastic tissue is capable of considerable
extension and recoil.
• It is found in:
– large blood vessel walls.
– the trachea and bronchi, and the lungs.
4. Fibrous tissue
• This tissue is made up mainly of closely packed
bundles of collagen fibres with very little
matrix. Fibrocytes are few in number and lie in
rows between the bundles of fibres.
It is found in;
– forming ligaments, which bind bones together
– as an outer protective covering for bone, called
periosteum
– as an outer protective covering of some organs,
e.g. the kidneys, lymph nodes and the brain
– forming muscle sheaths, called muscle fascia,
which extend beyond the muscle to become the
tendon that attaches the muscle to bone.
5. Lymphoid Tissue
• Lymphoid tissue is consist of a semisolid
matrix, lymphocytes and fine branching fibres.
• Found in;
• Lymph nodes
• Spleen
• Palatine & pharyngeal tonsils.
• Vermiform appendix
• Wall of the large intestine
6. Cartilage
• Cartilage is a much firm tissue than any other connective tissue
but less firm than bone. The cell are called chondrocytes.
• It is found principally in joints & b/w bones. (the bone of the
embryo are first cartilage, then the growing centres persist as
cartilage & when adult age is reached cartilage is found
covering the bone ends. Cartilage does not contain blood
vessels but is covered by a membrane, perichondrium, from
which it derives its blood supply).
• There are three types of cartilage;
a) Hyaline cartilage
b) Fibro cartilage
c) Elastic cartilage (elastic fibro cartilage)
a) Hyaline cartilage
• Hyaline cartilage consist of collagen fibres embedded
in a solid, tough matrix, ( the chondrocytes are in small
groups).
• Hyaline cartilage is firm and elastic
• Found in;
• Covering the ends of long bone as articular cartilage
• In the costal cartilage
• In the nose
• In larynx, trachea and bronchial tubes where it keeps open
the orifices
• It is also a temporary cartilage from which bone is formed
b) White fibro cartilage
• White fibro cartilage is consist of dense masses of white
fibres in a matrix similar to that of hyaline cartilage with
the cells widely dispersed.
• It is a tough, slightly flexible tissue and is found where
great strength is required,
– It deepens the cavities of bony sockets ( as in the acetabulum
of innominate bone, and the glenoid cavity of the scapula).
– It also form the inter articular cartilage, as in semilunar
cartilage of the knee.
– It forms the connective cartilage, as in the inter vertebral discs.
– It also found in the pad of cartilage at the symphysis pubis.
c) Elastic Cartilage
• Elastic cartilage consist of elastic fibres lying in
a solid matrix. The cell lie b/w the fibres.
• It forms;
– The pinna or lobe of the ear
– The epiglottis
– Part of the tunica media of blood vessels wall.
7. Bone (bone tissue)
Bone (osteocytes) consist of two kinds of
tissues.
– Compact bone tissue
– Cancellous/spongy bone tissue
Compact bone tissue;
A Compact bone tissue is hard and dense. It is found in flat
bones and in the shift of long bone.
Cancellous/spongy bone tissue;
A Cancellous bone tissue is spongy in structure. It is found
in the ends of long bone, in the short bones.
8. Blood (blood tissue).
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue that is
described in detail cardiovascular system.
 C- Muscle Tissue
• Muscle is a tissue which is specialized for
contraction and by means of this, movements
are performed.
• There are three types of muscle tissue,
a) Striated/skeletal/voluntary muscle.
b) Non-striated/visceral/smooth/involuntary
muscle.
c) Cardiac muscle.
a) Striated muscle tissue
• This type is described as skeletal because it
forms those muscles that move the bones (of the
skeleton), striated because striations (stripes)
can be seen on microscopic examination and
voluntary as it is under conscious control.
• (microscopic examination of the voluntary
muscle shows that
• Cells are roughly cylindrical in shape & may be as
long as 35 cm.
• Each cell, commonly called a fibre, has several nuclei
situated just under the sarcolema, or cell membrane
of each muscle fibre.
• The muscle fibres lie parallel to one another & when
viewed under the microscope, they showed well-
marked transverse dark and light bands, hence the
name striated or striped muscle.
• A muscle consist of a large number of muscle fibre. In
addition to sarcolema each fibre is enclosed in and
attached to the fine fibrous tissue called endomysium.
• A number of fibres are massed together to form
bundles, which are enclosed perimysium.
• Many of these bundles are bound together by
connective tissue to form large and small muscle.
• The whole muscle enclosed in epimysium.
• The fibrous tissue enclosing the fibres, the
bundles and the whole muscle extends beyond
the muscle fibres to become the tendon which
attaches the muscle to the bone or skin.
b) Non-striated muscle tissue
• Smooth muscle is also described as non-striated,
visceral or involuntary. It does not have striations and is
not under conscious control.
• It is found in;
– Walls of the hollow organ
– Ducts of glands
– The alimentary tract
– The respiratory tract
– The urinary bladder
– The biliary tract
– The uterus
(Microscopic examination shows that, the cells
are seen to be spindle-shaped with only one
central nucleus. There is no distinct sarcolema
but a very fine membrane surrounds each
fibre. Bundles of fibres form sheets of muscle,
(such as those found in the walls of above
listed structures.)
c) Cardiac muscle tissue
• This tissue is found only in the muscle of heart. It is
striated/voluntary like muscle but it differs in that its
fibres branch anastomose with each other.
• Each fibre (cell) has a nucleus and one or more branches.
• The ends of the cells & their branches are in very close
contact with the ends and the branches of adjacent cells.
• The ends to & contiguity of cardiac muscle cells has
significant in relation to the way the heart contracts. A
wave of contraction spreads from cell o cell which means
that cells do not need to be stimulated individually.)
( cardiac muscle possesses the special
property of automatic rhythmical contraction
independently of its nerve supply. This
function is described as myogenic as distinct
from neurogenic. Normally the action of the
heart is controlled by its nerve supply.)
 D- Nervous Tissue
Two types of tissue are found in the nervous
system:
a) Excitable cells; these are called neurones and
they initiate, receive, conduct and transmit
information
b) Non-excitable cells; also known as glial cells,
these support the neurones.
Membranes.
The membranes are made of thin layers of
connective and epithelial tissues that cover, support
and separate viscera and lines the body cavities. For
example, The Meninges that line the dorsal cavities
of the brain and spinal cord.
The main membranes of the body are;
1. Mucous membrane.
2. Serous membrane.
3. Synovial membrane.
1. Mucous membranes.
• Mucous membranes: line cavities that
communicate with the exterior, including
digestive, respiratory, reproductive and
urinary tracts.
• Many mucous membrane are lined by simple
epithelium that perform secretory or
absorptive functions.
• Secretes a thick liquid substance called mucus
which lubricates the organs.
2. Serous membranes.
• Serous membranes line the sealed internal
cavities of the body.
• Covers the thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities and covers the visceral organs that
secrete watery fluid called serous fluid.
• Other parts of the body that contain serous
membrane include:
• Lungs: Pleura are a type of serous membrane
that lines the interior of the lungs.
Conti.
• Heart : Pericardial membrane is another type
of serous membrane, lining the heart.
• In the abdomen, the serous membrane lining
the abdominal surface is called the peritoneal
membrane.
• Parietal peritoneum lines the abdominal wall
while the visceral peritoneum covers the
surfaces of organs.
3. Synovial Membranes.
• —Bones of the skeleton contact one another
at joints.
• —Ends of bones are covered by hyaline
cartilage and separated by a viscous synovial
fluid secreted by synovial membrane.
• —Made only of connective tissue
—Synovial cavity Function
• Secrete viscous synovial fluid in the joints for
lubrication of joint.
References.
• file:///C:/Users/B/Downloads/ros&wil&ana&p
hy&hea&ill&12th.pdf
• Evelyn Pearce 16th edition. Anatomy and
Physiology for Nurses.
• wikipedia
ANY QUESTION…?
THANK YOU