Chapter 3: Strength Calculation of Joints

Chapter Contents: Part 1

1. Threaded Fasteners
– Introduction: Definitions and Types of Fasteners
– Thread Standards and Terminologies
– Bolt Stiffness (Kb) & Clamped Members Stiffness (Km)
– Clamping Load, Tightening Torque, External Force
2. Power Screws
– Square and Acme Threads
– Torque Required to Raise & Lower Loads
– Efficiency of Power Screws
– Force Analysis of Power Screws
– Stresses on Power Screws
1
 Introduction: Definitions
• A fastener: any device used to join two or more
components (bolts, screws, studs, cap screws, set
screws).
• A bolt: a threaded fastener designed to pass through
holes in the mating members and to be secured by
tightening a nut from the end opposite the head of the
bolt.
• A screw: a threaded fastener designed to be inserted
through a hole in one member to be joined and into a
threaded hole in the mating member.
– The threaded hole may have been preformed, for example, by
tapping, or it may be formed by the screw itself as it is forced
into the material.
2
 Introduction: Types of Fasteners

Bolt Vs Screw

Bolt
Styles

Cap or
Machine
Screws
3
 Introduction: Types of Fasteners

Sheet-metal screws, lag screws, self-tapping screws, and wood

screws usually form their own threads.

4
 Thread Standards and Terminologies
Terminology of Screw Threads
• Pitch (p): the distance b/n adjacent thread forms
measured parallel to the thread axis.
• The pitch in U.S. units is the reciprocal of the number
of thread per inch, N
• Major diam. (d): the largest diameter of a screw thread
• Minor/root diam. (dr): the smallest core diameter of a
screw thread
• Pitch diam. (dp): a theoretical diameter b/n major and
minor diameters
• Lead (l): the distance the nut moves parallel to the
screw axis when the nut is given one turn 5
 Thread Standards and Terminologies
Terminology of Screw Threads

• For a double-threaded screw: l = 2p,

• For a triple-threaded screw: l = 3p, and so on.
• All threads are made according to the right-hand rule unless
otherwise noted.
6
 Thread Standards
Two types of Thread Standards
• The American National (Unified) thread standard
– The thread angle is 600 and the crests of the thread may be
either flat or rounded

• The Metric M and MJ profiles.

– The M profile is the basic ISO profile with 600 symmetric
threads
– The MJ profile has a rounded fillet at the root of the
external thread and a larger minor diameter of both the
internal and external threads
– This profile is especially useful where high fatigue strength
is required.
7
 Thread Standards
Basic Profile for Metric M and MJ Threads

d = major diameter; dr = minor diameter; dp = pitch diameter;

p = pitch; p = (√3/2)H, where H is apex to apex height
8
 Thread Standards
Tables 3.1 & 3.2 are useful in specifying threaded parts
Thread size is specified by giving:
• The pitch p for Metric sizes
– Metric threads are specified by writing the diameter and
pitch in millimeters, in that order;
– E.g., M12 × 1.75 is a thread having a nominal major
diameter of 12 mm and a pitch of 1.75 mm.
• The number of threads per inch N for the Unified sizes
– Unified threads are specified by stating the nominal major
diameter, the number of threads per inch, and the thread
series (UNC: unified coarse or UNF: unified fine);
– E.g., 5/8 in - 18 UNF is a thread having a nominal major
diameter of 5/8 in and number of threads per inch of 18.
9
 Thread Standards
Table 3.1
Metric
Screw
Threads

10
 Thread Standards
Table 3.2
Unified
Screw
Threads

11
 Square and Acme Threads
• Square (a) & Acme (b) threads are used on screws when power is
to be transmitted and large forces to be applied (presses, jacks).

• Table 3.3 lists the preferred pitches for inch series Acme threads.

12
 Bolt Stiffness (Kb)
Bolt
Stiffness
(Kb)

13
 Preferred / Standard Sizes
S
 Hexagonal Nuts
Table A-31
Hexagonal
Nuts
(inch)

15
 Hexagonal Nuts
Table A-31
Hexagonal
Nuts
(mm)

16
 Standard Plain Washer
Table A-32
American
Standard
Plain
Washer
(inch)

17
 Standard Plain Washer
Table A-32
American
Standard
Plain
Washer
(inch)

18
 Standard Plain Washer
Table A-33
Metric
Plain
Washer
(mm)

19
 Stiffness of Clamped Members (Km)
• The clamped parts may consist of a combination of d/t materials.
• The parts may be represented by “springs” in series and the
stiffness of the clamped parts can be:

• (8.18)
• Shigley & Mischke proposed expression for the joint stiffness:

… (8.20)

• The above Equation must be solved separately for each frustum in

a joint. Then individual stiffnesses are combined to obtain kc.
• If the members of the joint have the same Young’s modulus E
with symmetrical frusta back to back, then they act as two
identical springs in series.
20
 Stiffness of Clamped Members (Km)
• Using the grip as l = 2t and dw as the diameter of the washer
face, we find the spring rate of the members to be:

• … (8.21)

• The diameter of the washer face is about 50 percent greater

than the fastener diameter for standard hexagon-head bolts and
cap screws.
• Thus we can simplify Eq. (8–21) by letting dw = 1.5d, and use
α = 30° (recommended for hardened steel, cast iron or
aluminum members), then Eq. (8–21) can be written as:

• … (8.22)

21
 Stiffness of Clamped Members (Km)
• Wileman, Choudury, and Green offered an exponential curve-
fit of the form

… (8.23)
with constants A and B defined in Table 8.8 below.
• To apply Eqn. (8.23), it is very important to note that the entire
joint must be made up of the same material.
Table 8.8

22
 Example Problem 3.1
• E3.1

23
 Example Problem 3.1 Solution
• SE3.1

24
 Example Problem 3.1 Solution
• SE3.1

25
 Example Problem 3.1 Solution
• SE3.1

26
 Example Problem 3.1 Solution
• SE3.1

27
 Example Problem 3.2
• A 2-in steel plate and a 1-in cast-iron plate are
compressed with one bolt and a nut (regular –
hexagonal), no washer.
• The bolt is ½ in. – 13 UNC.
ESt = 30 x 106 psi, ECI = 14.5 x 106 psi

a) Determine a suitable length for the bolt, rounded

up to the nearest 1/4 in.
b) Determine the bolt stiffness.
c) Determine the stiffness of the members.

28
 Example Problem 3.2 Solution
• EP3.2

29
 Example Problem 3.2 Solution

• EP3.2

30
 Bolt Preload or Initial Tensile Force (Fi)
• The initial tensile force created in a bolt during
clamping is called Bolt Preload, Fi :

– At is the tensile stress area of the thread

– Sp is the proof strength of steel for various grade numbers
and sizes
• Table 8.9: SAE - specifies grade number from 1 to 8.2;
• Table 8.10: Metric -.specifies grade number from 4.6 to 12.9;
– The constant K is 0.75 for reused/nonpermanent connections
and 0.90 for permanent connections.
• The proof load is defined as Fp = At Sp and is the
maximum load that a bolt can withstand without
acquiring a permanent set. 31
 Table 8.9: SAE Specification for Steel Bolts
• T3.5

32
Table 8.10: Metric Specification for Steel Bolts, Screws
• T3.6

33
 Clamping Load & Tightening Torque
• When a bolt or a screw is used to clamp two parts, the force
exerted between the parts is the clamping load.
• The clamping load is created in the bolt when exerting a
tightening torque on the nut/on the head of the screw.
• An approximate relationship b/n the required tightening
torque and the axial tensile/clamping force created in the
bolt/screw is:
T = K d P … (8.27)
where T = torque, lb in;
d = nominal outside diameter of threads, in;
P = clamping force/load in the bolt, lb;
K = constant dependent on the lubrication present
– K = 0.15 if any lubrication at all is present
– K = 0.20 if the threads are well cleaned and dried 34
 Example Problem 3.3
• A set of three bolts are to be used to provide a
clamping force of 12,000 lb between two
components of a machine. The load is shared
equally among the three bolts.

Specify suitable bolts, including the grade of

the material, if each is to be stressed to 75% of
its proof strength. Then compute the required
tightening torque. Use lubrication.

35
 Example Problem 3.3 Solution
• The load on each screw is to be 4,000 lb.
• Let’s specify a bolt made from SAE Grade 5 steel,
having a proof strength of 85,000 psi.
• Then the allowable stress is
σa = 0.75 (85,000 psi) = 63,750 psi
• The required tensile stress area for the bolt is then

• From Table 8.2, we find that the 3/8 in. – 16 UNC thread has
the required tensile stress area.
• The required tightening torque is:
T = K d P = 0.15 (0.375 in) (4000 lb) = 225 lb.in
36
 Externally Applied Force on Bolted Joint
• Initially, the force on a bolt (in tension) is equal to the force
on the clamped members (in compression).
• Then when we start to tighten the joint some of the
additional load will act to stretch the bolt beyond its length.
• Another portion will result in a decrease in the compressive
force in the clamped member.
• Thus, only part of the applied force is carried by the bolt.
• The amount is dependent on the relative stiffness of the bolt
and the relative stiffness of the clamped members.
• If a stiff bolt is clamping a flexible member, most of the
added force will be taken by the bolt.
• In this case, the bolt design must take into account not only
the initial clamping force but also the added force.
37
 Externally Applied Force on Bolted Joint
• Conversely, if the bolt is relatively flexible compared
with the clamped members, virtually all of the
externally applied load will initially go to decreasing the
clamping force until the members actually separate, a
condition usually interpreted as failure of the joint.
• Then the bolt will carry the full amount of the external
load.
• In general bolts are used to hold parts together.
• External forces tend to pull, or slide, the parts apart.
• Figure (a) shows two parts connected by a bolt.
• An external force, Fe, acts on the joint and tends to
separate the two parts.
38
 Externally Applied Force on Bolted Joint
• The FBD of a portion of the joint without the external load is
shown in Fig. (b).
• In this figure the nut has been initially tightened to a preload
force Fi. This preload will create Fb0 and Fc0
• The initial bolt axial load Fb0 and the clamping force b/n the
two plates Fc0 are both equal to the preload force Fi, i.e.,
Fb0 = Fc0 = Fi

39
 Externally Applied Force on Bolted Joint
• Fig. (c) shows the FBD of the portion with the external load Fe
• Equilibrium requires an increase in Fb and a decrease in Fc.
• The separating force Fe must be equal to the sum of the increased
bolt force ΔFb plus the decreased clamping force ΔFc
…….. (a)
• The bolt and the clamped members elongate by the same amount

…….. (b)
where Kb & Kc are the spring constants for the bolt & clamped
parts, respectively.
• From the above two equations the elongation is:

40
 Externally Applied Force on Bolted Joint
• The bolt axial load Fb and the clamping force Fc are given by:

………. (c )

• The joint constant is defined as a dimensionless stiffness

parameter given by:

……………… (d)
• Combining equation (a) and (b), the bolt axial load Fb and the
clamping force Fc are given by:

………….. (e) / (8.24)

41
 Externally Applied Force on Bolted Joint
• The bolt stress can be calculated from

• The limiting value for the bolt stress, σb, represents the proof
strength of the bolt material, Sp.

• A safety factor nb is introduced for the bolt stress such that,

• The bolt failure safety factor is

where Fmax, b is the maximum external load applied to the bolt.

42
 Externally Applied Force on Bolted Joint
• Separation occurs when the clamping force is zero, Fc = 0.

• The safety factor against separation of the parts of the joint is

obtained when Fc = 0 in eqn. (e) and has the expression:

where Fmax is the maximum external load applied to members’

joint.

43
 Example Problem 3.4
• A ¾ in. – 16 UNF x 2.5 in. SAE, Grade 5 bolt is
subjected to a load P of 6 kip in a tension joint.
• The initial bolt tension is Fi = 25 kip.
• The bolt and joint stiffnesses are Kb = 6.50 Mlbf/in. &
Km = 13.8 Mlbf/in., respectively.
a) Determine the preload stress (σi) and the service load
stress (σb) in the bolt. Compare these stresses to the
SAE minimum proof strength of the bolt.
b) Specify the torque necessary to develop the preload.
(Assume cleaned and dried threads)

44
 Example Problem 3.4 Solution
• From Table 8.2, At = 0.373 in2.
• The preload stress is:
σi = Fi / At = 25 / 0.373 = 67.02 kpsi
• The stiffness constant is:
C = Kb / (Kb + Km) = 6.50 / (6.50 + 13.80) = 0.320

45
 Example Problem 3.5
An M12, Coarse-pitch, Grade 5.8 bolt made of steel with a hexagonal nut
assembly is used to clamp two machine parts together as shown in the figure
below. Assuming a nonpermanent connection, determine the following:
a) Bolt stiffness and equivalent clamped members’ (joint) stiffness.
b) Maximum external load that the assembly can support for a load safety factor of 2.5.
c) Safety factor guarding against separation of the members.
Use ESt =207 GPa, EAl = 72 GPa. All dimensions are in mm.

46
E1 Tutorial Exercise

47
 Example Problem 3.6
• Two parts of a machine are held together by bolts,
each of which carries a static tensile load of 3100 N.
What size of Grade 5.8 Coarse-thread Metric bolt is
required using a safety factor of 4 (based on proof
strength)?
Assume that the loads are equally distributed among
the threads.
Solution
• SP = 380 MPa
• N = SP/σ, where σ = F/At
• At = F N / SP = 3100 * 4 N/380 MPa = 32.6 mm2
• From Table 3.1, select M8 x 1.25, At = 36.6 mm2 48
 Example Problem 3.7
• What size of UNF bolt made from SAE Grade 5 steel
is needed to carry a static tensile load of 3000 lb with
a safety factor of 4 based on proof strength?

Solution
• For a load of 3 kip, assume d < 1 in.
• SP = 85 ksi
• N = SP/σ, where σ = F/At
• At = F N / SP = 3,000 * 4 / 85,000 = 0.14 in2
• From Table 3.2, select ½ in. – 20 UNF thread with At
= 0.1599 in2.
49
 Example Problem 3.8
An ISO M12 × 1.75 class = 12.9 bolt is used to fasten three members as
shown below. The first member is made of cast iron (E CI = 172 Gpa), the
second is made of low-carbon steel (ESt = 207 Gpa), and the third is made
of aluminum (EAl = 69 Gpa). The static loading safety factor is 2.5. All
dimensions are in millimeters. Determine,
a) The total bolt length, unthreaded length and threaded length in the joint
b) The Bolt and Equivalent Member stiffness
c) Preload for permanent connections
d) Maximum Static Load that the bolt can support

50
 Example Problem 3.9
• A number of N identical bolts, 1 in. − 8 UNC, Grade 5, are used to join two
members. The joint constant C is C = 0.5 and the separating force is 60 kip.
Assuming that the bolts may be reused when the joint is taken apart,
a) Determine the number of bolts (N) required for a design safety factor of 2.0.
b) With this number of bolts, what will be the achieved design safety factor?

51
 Power Screw
Power screws are used to:
– convert rotary motion to linear motion of meeting
members along the screw axis
– lift weights (screw-type jacks)
– exert large forces (presses, tensile testing machines).
For applications that require power transmission, the
Acme and square threads are used

52
 Power Screw: Acme & Square Threads
Acme and Square Threads and their Modifications

53
 Power Screw (Square Thread): Force Analysis
Consider a square-thread: pitch diameter dm, pitch p, and
lead or helix angle λ : dm = d – p/2; dr = d – p
– A single thread of the screw is unrolled for exactly one turn.
– The edge of the thread is the hypotenuse of a right triangle and
the height is the lead.
– The base of the right triangle is the circumference of the pitch
diameter circle
– The lead angle λ is the helix angle of the thread.

54
 Power Screw (Square Thread): Force Analysis
• The screw is loaded by an axial compressive force F
• The force diagram for lifting the load is shown in Fig.(a),
(the force Pr is positive)
• The force diagram for lowering the load is shown in Fig.
(b), (the force Pl is negative)
• The friction force is: Ff = μ N
– where μ is coefficient of dry friction & N is the normal force
• The equilibrium of forces for raising the load gives,

• Similarly, for lowering the load one may write the equations,

55
 Power Screw (Square Thread): Force Analysis
• Eliminate N and solving for Pr

• Eliminate N and solving for Pl

• Using the relation:

and dividing the equations by cos λ one may obtain,

56
 Power Screw (Square Thread): Force Analysis
• The moment or torque required to overcome the thread friction
and to raise the load is:

• The moment or torque required to lower the load (and to

overcome a part of the friction when lowering the load) is:

• When the lead, l, is large or the friction, μ, is low the load will
lower itself
• In this case the screw will spin without any external effort, and
the torque/moment Ml will be negative or zero (Ml ≤ 0)
• When the torque/moment is positive, Ml > 0, the screw is said
to be self-locking 57
 Power Screw (Square Thread): Force Analysis
• The condition for self-locking is:

• Dividing both sides of this inequality by πdm, and using

l/πdm = tan λ yields,

• The self-locking is obtained whenever

• The torque/moment, M0 required to raise the load when there
is no friction, i.e., μ = 0, is:

• The screw efficiency, e, for raising the load can be defined as:

• All the above Eqns can be applied for square threads where the
normal thread load, F, is parallel to the axis of the screw. 58
 Power Screw (Acme Thread): Force Analysis
• For Acme threads, the normal thread load is inclined to the
axis due to the thread angle 2α and the lead angle λ.
• Since lead angles are small, they can be neglected and only the
effect of the thread angle is considered.
• The effect of the angle α is to increase the frictional force by
the wedging action of the threads. Therefore the frictional
terms in Eq. (MR or TR) must be divided by cos α.

59
 Power Screw (Acme Thread) : Force Analysis
• For raising the load, or for tightening a screw or bolt,
this yields,

• For power screws, the Acme thread is not as efficient

as the square thread, b/s of the additional friction due
to the wedging action, but often preferred b/s it is
easier to machine.
• Usually a third component of collar torque, Tc, must
be applied in power-screw applications.
• When the screw is loaded axially, a thrust or collar
bearing must be used b/n the rotating and stationary
members in order to carry the axial component.
60
 Power Screw (Acme Thread) : Force Analysis
• Figure below shows a typical thrust collar in which
the load is assumed to be concentrated at the mean
collar diameter dc.

• If fc or μc is the coefficient of collar friction, the torque

required is:
61
 Power Screw: Stress Analysis
Nominal screw body stresses can be related to thread
parameters as follows:
• The maximum nominal shear stress τ in the body of the
screw due to torsion T is:

• The axial normal stress σ in the body of the screw due to

load F is:

Nominal screw thread stresses can be related to thread

parameters as follows.
• The crushing or bearing stress in the thread, σB, is:
where nt is the
number of engaged 62
threads.
 Power Screw: Stress Analysis
• The bending stress at the root of the thread σb is:

• The transverse shear stress τ at the center of the root of

the thread due to load F is:

• and at the top of the root it is zero.

63
 Power Screw: Stress Analysis
• The von Mises stress σ’ at the top of the root “plane”
is found by first identifying the orthogonal normal
stresses and the shear stresses.
• From the coordinate system of Fig. below, we note

64
 Power Screw: Stress Analysis
• A power screw lifting a load will be in compression and
its thread pitch is shortened by elastic deformation.
• Its engaging nut will be in tension and its thread pitch is
lengthened.
• The engaged threads cannot share the load equally.
• Some experiments show that:
– the first engaged thread carries 0.38 of the load,
– the second engaged thread carries 0.25,
– the third engaged thread carries 0.18, and
– the seventh engaged thread is free of load.
• In estimating thread stresses by the eqns above, substituting
0.38F for F and setting nt to 1 will give the largest level of
stresses in the thread-nut combination. 65
 Example 3.10 (Example 8-1, Shigley, 10th Edition)
A square-thread power screw has a major diameter of 32 mm
and a pitch of 4 mm with double threads. The given data
include μ = μc = 0.08, dc = 40 mm, and F = 6.4 kN.
• Find the thread depth, thread width, pitch diameter, minor
diameter, and lead.
• Find the torque required to raise and lower the load.
• Find the efficiency during lifting the load.
• Find the body stresses, torsional and compressive.
• Find the bearing stress.
• Find the thread bending stress at the root of the thread.
• Determine the von Mises stress at the root of the thread
• Determine the maximum shear stress at the root of the thread.
66
 Example 3.10 Solution
(a) The thread depth and width are the same and equal to
half the pitch, or 2 mm. Also,

(b) Using Eqs. (3.26) and (3.33), the torque required to turn
the screw against the load,

67
 Example 3.10 Solution
• Using Eqs. (3.27) and (3.33), we find the load-lowering
torque is,

• The minus sign in the first term indicates that the screw
alone is not self-locking and would rotate under the
action of the load except for the fact that the collar
friction is present and must be overcome, too.
• Thus the torque required to rotate the screw “with” the
load is < necessary to overcome collar friction alone
68
 Example 3.10 Solution
(c) The overall efficiency in raising the load is,

(d) The body shear stress τ due to torsional moment TR at

the outside of the screw body

The axial nominal normal stress σ is

(e) The bearing stress σB is, with one thread carrying 0.38F,

69
 Example 3.10 Solution
(f) The thread-root bending stress σb with one thread
carrying 0.38F is

(g) The transverse shear at the extreme of the root cross

section due to bending is zero.
However, there is a circumferential shear stress at the
extreme of the root cross section of the thread as shown
in part (d) of 6.07 MPa.
The three-dimensional stresses, after Fig. 3.16, noting the y
coordinate is into the page, are

70
 Example 3.10 Solution
• The von Mises stress can be written as,

• Alternatively, you can determine the principal stresses and then

find the von Mises stress.
• This would prove helpful in evaluating τmax as well.
• The principal stresses can be found); however, sketch the stress
element and note that there are no shear stresses on the x face.
• This means that σx is a principal stress. The remaining stresses
can be transformed by using the plane stress equations.
• Thus, the remaining principal stresses are,

71
 Example 3.10 Solution
• Ordering the principal stresses gives σ1, σ2, σ3 = 41.5,
2.79, -13.18 MPa.
• Substituting these into the Von Mises equation yields,

• The maximum shear stress is given by,

72
 Example 3.11
The C clamp uses a ¾ in – 6 Acme thread and the
frictional coefficients are 0.15 for both the threads and
for the collar. The collar has a friction diameter of 1 in.
Calculations are to be based on a maximum force of 8 lb
applied to the handle at a radius of 3.5 in from the screw
centerline. Find the clamping force.

73
 Example 3.11 Solution
E3.11

74
 Example 3.12
An ordinary C – clamp uses a ½ in. Acme single thread
and a collar of 5/8 in. mean diameter. Estimate the force
required at the end of a 5-in. handle to develop a 500-lb
clamping force. Take μ = μC = 0.15.

75
 Example 3.12 Solution
E3.12

76
 Example 3.13
A single square-thread power screw has an input power of
3 kW at a speed of 1 rev/s.

The screw has a diameter of 40 mm and a pitch of 8 mm.

The frictional coefficients are 0.14 for the threads and 0.09
for the collar, with a collar friction radius of 50 mm.

Find the axial resisting load F and the combined efficiency

of the screw and collar.

77
 Example 3.13 Solution
dm = 40  4 = 36 mm, l = p = 8 mm

78