15AES432

AIR BREATHING ENGINES

Sessions..:
Fuels &
Emissions

A.R. SRIKRISHNAN
2023
Aviation Fuels: Properties/Attributes of Interest

Operation, Atomization, Density, Viscosity, Calorific value,

Combustion, efficiency, Thermal stability etc.

Storability, handling Boiling point, toxicity, fire risk

Economy Availability, cost

Calorific Value
 Hydrocarbon fuels typically have calorific value in the range
of 42 MJ/kg-48 MJ/kg
The percentage of hydrogen in the compound favourably
influences the calorific value
Typical Values..
A Correlation for Calorific Value
Calorific value in MJ/kg:

Terms represent Percent of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxigen, Sulpher & H2O

respectively

H2 dominates the value of CV

Typical Jet Fuels & Their Properties
Aviation fuel is a blend of different hydrocarbons with different molecular structures
and different reaction tendencies.

Olefenes:

Aromatics:
Nature of Components…
Unsaturated, i.e., their molecules contain less than the maximum
Olefenes: possible number of hydrogen atoms, they are very active chemically and
readily react with a great many compounds
• Contain less hydrogen and, in consequence, their specific energy is appreciably lower
Aromatics: • The disadvantages of aromatic compounds include a marked tendency to soot
formation and a high hygroscopicity that can lead to precipitation of ice crystals when
the fuel is subjected to low temperatures

Naphthenes, which have the general formula (CH2)n, are

Naphthenes saturated hydrocarbons

Jet fuel has an average composition of 60%

paraffins, 20% naphthenes, 20% aromatics and contains about 500 ppm
of sulfur.
Alternative Fuels
Conventional aircraft engine exhaust produces a range of hazardous
compounds:
CO, NOx, SOx, unburned hydrocarbons (UHC)
 Particulate matter (soot)
Greenhouse gases, most notably CO2

 Future evolution of the aviation sector requires reliable, diverse,

cost effective, and environmentally sustainable energy sources
What is an Alternative Fuel ?
 A fuel that either augments or replaces the conventional
fuel on a potentially permanent basis with no adverse effects
on engine performance, maintenance, or operational life
may be defined as an alternative fuel.
 Range from highest quality fuels, such as hydrogen and methane,
to low-grade liquid and gaseous fuels that remain deficient in many
aspects, even after extensive refining
 Gaseous and liquid fuels that can be formed from coal
& biomass
Fuel-Future..

The future of the alternative fuel industry depends on the following key
factors:
Right fuel properties and handling for the engines and infrastructure already in
place,
 Environmental impact that includes competition with food, water, and land,
CO2 life cycle analysis and carbon footprint issues,
Economics of return on investment, production, and sustainability.
Closer Look at Aircraft Combustors
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPK_eiNng7Q
 Emission Issues
Issue Key Species Mitigation
• Climate Change- Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - Fuel Efficiency
- Water Vapor - Operational
Measures
- NOx - Combustor Design

• Local Air Quality - NOx - Combustor Design

- Carbon Monoxide (CO) - Operational
- Unburned Hydrocarbon (HC) Measures
- Smoke/Soot
 Local Air Quality: Continuous
Improvement
450
over decades

400
% of ICAO Standards Hydrocarbons
150 Carbon monoxide
Oxides of nitrogen
Smoke

100

50

0
Pre81 81-91 91-present Ref: The Boeing Company
CO2/NOx Trade
• Higher engine pressure
ratio and bypass ratio
reduce CO2/improve fuel SFC
efficiency (SFC) and

SFC (lb/lb-hr, or EI NOx)

facilitate noise reduction

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Overall Pressure Ratio

 Conflicting Design Requirements:
CO2/Nox Control
• Higher engine pressure
ratio and bypass ratio
reduce CO2/improve fuel SFC NO X
efficiency (SFC) and

SFC (lb/lb-hr, or EI NOx)

facilitate noise reduction

• Higher pressure ratio

entails higher flame
temperature, increasing
NOx formation rate

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Overall Pressure Ratio

 CO2/NOx Trade
• Higher engine pressure
ratio and bypass ratio
reduce CO2/improve fuel SFC NO X
efficiency (SFC) and

SFC (lb/lb-hr, or EI NOx)

facilitate noise reduction
Improving Combustor
• Higher pressure ratio Technology
requires higher flame
temperature, increasing
NOx formation rate

• Better NOx technology

needed to avoid 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
increased emissions Overall Pressure Ratio
 D I X
P P EN
A
Saturated Hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that contain
only single bonds between carbon atoms. They are the
simplest class of hydrocarbons. They are called
saturated because each carbon atom is bonded to as
many hydrogen atoms as possible. In other words, the
carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen.

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