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03 MS3220 Thermal Eng CH 10.1 To 10.11 Boiling and Condensation TAFS
03 MS3220 Thermal Eng CH 10.1 To 10.11 Boiling and Condensation TAFS
13 T H WEEK
3
INTRODUCTION ON
BOILING AND
CONDENSATION 4
CHANGE OF PHASE
Types of Change of Phase:
1. Solid to Liquid: Melting
2. Liquid to Solid: Freezing
3. Liquid to Gas/Vapor: Vaporization
4. Vapor to Liquid: Condensation
5. Solid to Vapor: Sublimation
6. Vapor to Solid: Sublimation
6
Moran, M. J., H. N. Shapiro, D. D. Boettner, and M. B. Bailey, “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 7 th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2011
BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Boiling and Condensation occur between solid-liquid and solid-vapor interface and are classified as
convection heat transfer mode since they involve fluid motions.
Boiling is the change of state of the fluid from liquid to vapor due to heat transfer from a solid surface.
Condensation is the change of state of the fluid from vapor to liquid due to heat transfer to a solid surface.
During boiling and condensation, when the phase change, large latent heat transfer can occur while the
temperature stays constant.
Parameters important in characterizing the boiling and condensation:
1. Latent heat, hfg.
2. Surface tension at the liquid-vapor interface, .
3. Density difference between two phases, (g), that creates buoyancy force.
Equipment involve with boiling and condensation: boilers, condensers, evaporators, etc., are used in
power plants, refrigeration units, process plants, etc.
7
10.1 DIMENSIONLESS
PARAMETERS IN
BOILING AND
CONDENSATION 8
DIMENSIONLESS
PARAMETERS IN BOILING
AND CONDENSATION
In boiling and condensation, the convection coefficients could depend on:
1. The difference between the surface and saturation temperatures, .
2. The body force arising from the liquid-vapor density difference,
3. The latent heat,
4. The surface tension, . ∆𝑇
5. A characteristic length, .
6. The thermophysical properties of the liquid or vapor:
Therefore:
h =h ¿ ¿
9
Moran, M. J., H. N. Shapiro, D. D. Boettner, and M. B. Bailey, “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 7 th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2011
Using the Buckingham pi theorem there are 10 variables, in 5 dimensions (m, kg,
s, J, K), there are (10-5) = 5 pi-groups which can be expressed as:
[ ]
3
h𝐿 𝜌 𝑔(𝜌 𝑙 − 𝜌 𝑣 )𝐿 𝑐 𝑝 Δ𝑇 𝜇𝑐 𝑝 g(𝜌 𝑙 − 𝜌 𝑣 )
=𝑓 , , ,
𝑘 𝜇
2
𝑘 𝑘 𝜎
Or, in the dimensionless groups, the relationship for boiling/condensation:
𝑁 𝑢𝐿= 𝑓
[
𝜌 𝑔(𝜌 𝑙 − 𝜌 𝑣 )𝐿3
𝜇 2
, 𝐽𝑎 , 𝑃𝑟 , 𝐵𝑜
]
Where:
• Ja is Jakob number: ratio of the maximum sensible energy absorbed by the
liquid (vapor) to the latent energy absorbed by the liquid (vapor) during
condensation (boiling), usually has a small number, and
• Bo is Bond number: the ratio of the buoyancy force to the surface tension force.
• The first term resembles the Grashof number and represent the effect of
buoyancy-induced fluid motion on heat transfer. Note:
10
PART I: BOILING
WHAT IS BOILING? (1’:10”)
12
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Py0GEByCke4
WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY BOILING?
Electronic cooling 13
10.2 BOILING MODES
14
BOILING
• Boiling is when evaporation occurs at a solid-liquid interface when the temperature of the
surface temperature Ts > the saturation temperature Tsat corresponding to the liquid
pressure.
• Vapor bubbles are formed, grow, detached from the heating surface, propelled up through
the liquid, then escaped from the free surface at the top.
Heat transfer flux, q”: 𝑞 ”𝑠 =h (𝑇 𝑠 −𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
18
THE (NUKIYAMA’S) BOILING CURVE
Nukiyama’s setup (1934), Power
Controlled Heating: Observations:
1. Boiling does not begin until DTe ≈ 5o C
1. Heater: horizontal nichrome and
2. Heat flux increases until q”max then Twire jump to Tmelting.
platinum wires, q” = I x E.
2. T is measured thru resistance 3. Sudden decrease in at q”min during cooling.
thermometry T = f(R). 4. The hysteresis is a consequence of the power-controlled
method of heating and confirmed by Drew & Mueller.
19
10.3.2 MODES OF POOL
BOILING
Modes of Pool Boiling:
1. Free Convection: Use free convection correlations in
Chapter 9. , and . Use Eq. 9.31 for large horizontal
plate.
2. Nucleate boiling: () . Regimes: isolated bubbles and
jets/columns.
3. Transition boiling: () . Also called unstable or partial
film boiling.
4. Film boiling:
20
21
10.4 POOL BOILING
CORRELATIONS
22
POOL BOILING
CORRELATIONS
FREE CONVECTION REGIME
In Free Convection Regime, use correlations in Chapter
9, Eq. 9.31:
23
10.4.1 NUCLEATE POOL BOILING
Rohsenow correlation:
} = {}𝜇 rsub {}𝑙 {h} rsub {𝑓𝑔} {left [{𝑔 left ({𝜌} rsub {}𝑙 − {}𝜌 rsub {}𝑣 right )} over {}𝜎 right ]} ^ { 1} over {2} {left ({ 𝑐} rsub {𝑝𝑙, } Δ{}𝑇 rsub {}𝑒 } over { 𝐶} rsub {𝑠𝑓, } {h} rsub {𝑓𝑔} {𝑃𝑟} rsub {}𝑙 rsup {}𝑛 } right )} ^ {3 ¿
𝑞
𝑠
(10.5)
Forced convection correlation Bubble diameter: Velocity & time between bubbles:
mfc = 2/3
These equations are used to derive the Rohsenow correlation, above. 24
10.4.2 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX FOR
NUCLEATE POOL BOILING (q”MAX)
At point C, there is a Critical Heat Flux (CHF), where q”s,C =q”max
obtained through dimensional analysis and hydrodynamic stability analysis
as (Kutateladze [9] & Zuber [10]):
25
10.4.3 MINIMUM HEAT FLUX OR
LEIDENFROST POINT (q”MIN)
From Zuber (1958):
At point D, or at Leidenfrost Point, the heat flux from a large horizontal plate
is minimum, where q”s,D = q”min:
• Where is the emissivity of the solid (Table A.11), and is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant. 27
10.4.5 PARAMETRIC EFFECTS ON
POOL BOILING
Other Parameters that can affect pool boiling:
1. Gravitational Field: important in space travel and rotating
machinery. In maximum and minimum heat fluxes, and for film
boiling, the equations depend on g1/4. For nucleate boiling, q” is
nearly independent of g, although Eg. 10.5 depends on g1/2.
2. Liquid Sub-cooling: occur when T < Tsat and In the natural
convection regime, or , where 5/4 n 4/3 depending on the
geometry of heated surface. In nucleate boiling, the influence of
subcooling is negligible, and q”max and q”min increase linearly
with . For film boiling, q” increases strongly with .
3. Solid Surface Conditions: surface roughness by machining,
grooving, scouring and sandblasting, is negligible on q”max,
q”min, and film boiling; but has significant influence on q” for
nucleate boiling. Enhancement surfaces by processing and
machining are often used.
Heat flux 29
EXAMPLE 10.1
30
EXAMPLE 10.1
31
EXAMPLE 10.1
32
EXAMPLE 10.1
The
• The boiling heat flux is then, values of
Cs, f and n:
Answer 1
33
EXAMPLE 10.1
• Under steady-state conditions all heat addition to the pan will result in water
evaporation from the pan. Hence,
Answer 2
• The critical heat flux for nucleate pool boiling can be estimated from Eq. 10.6:
Answer 3
Note: q”s < q”max; and q”min can also be calculated by using Eq. 10.4 as 18.9 kW/m 2.
34
EXAMPLE 10.2
35
EXAMPLE 10.2
36
EXAMPLE 10.2
(Eg 10.9) 37
EXAMPLE 10.2
(Eq. 10.8)
(Eq. 10.9, can also use Eq. 10.10))
(Eq. 10.11)
38
10.5 FORCED 10.5
CONVECTION BOILING
39
FORCED CONVECTION BOILING
In Pool Boiling: fluid flow is due primarily to the buoyancy driven
motion of bubbles from the heated area.
In Forced Convection Boiling: flow is due to directed (bulk)
motion of the fluid, as well as to buoyancy effects.
40
10.5.1 EXTERNAL
FORCED CONVECTION
BOILING
For a liquid of velocity V moving in cross flow over a cylinder of diameter D, Lienhard
and Eichhorn (1976) developed the following expression (properties are evaluated at Tsat):
Low Velocity: High Velocity:
44
PART II: MS3220 Team
CONDENSATION
WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY
CONDENSATION?
46
Moran, M. J., H. N. Shapiro, D. D. Boettner, and M. B. Bailey, “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 7 th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2011
10.6 CONDENSATION:
PHYSICAL
MECHANISMS 47
CONDENSATION
• Occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its saturation temperature.
• Usually occurs when the vapor contacts a cool surface, and the latent energy of the
vapor is transferred into the surface.
48
Moran, M. J., H. N. Shapiro, D. D. Boettner, and M. B. Bailey, “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 7 th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2011
Trivia: Foggy car window during rain. Why?
49
Modes of condensation
• Integrating twice and applying boundary conditions of the form u(0) = 0 and = 0, the velocity
profile in the film becomes:
• Then, the condensate mass flow per unit width (x), may be obtained in terms of an integral
involving the velocity profile:
(10.19)
• At the liquid-vapor interface of a unit width and length dx, the rate of heat transfer into the film
dq, must equal the rate of energy release due to condensation at the interface, hence:
(10.21)
• Since advection is neglected, the rate of heat transfer across the interface must equal to
the rate of heat transfer to the surface:
(10.22)
• Since the liquid temperature distribution is linear, Fourier’s law may be used to express
the heat flux as:
(10.23)
• Combining all the previous equations (Eqns.: 10.19, 10.21 – 10.23), then:
(10.24)
(10.26)
• Since hx depends on x-1/4, the average convection coefficient for the entire plate is:
or
(10.31)
• Then, the average Nusselt number is:
(10.32)
Assumptions of Eq. 10.32:
• All liquid properties should be evaluated at film temperature Tf = (Tsat + Ts)/2.
• The vapor density, and latent heat of vaporization should be evaluated at Tsat.
• Errors are less than 3% for Ja 0.1 and 1 Pr 100.
• For inclined plates, replace g with g.cos , where is the angle between the vertical and the surface.
• Be careful in using this equation for large value of and it does not apply if = .
56
• The expression may be use for condensation on the inner or outer surface of a vertical tube of radius R, if R >>.
The total heat transfer to the surface may be obtained by using Eq. 10.31 with the following form of Newton’ Law
of Cooling:
(10.33)
The total condensation rate may then be determined from the relation:
(10.34)
The last two equations are generally applicable to any surface geometry.
Additional notes:
1. Condensate provides a resistance to heat transfer between the vapor and the surface.
2. This resistance increases with condensate thickness, which increase in the flow direction.
3. Hence, it is desirable to use short vertical surfaces or horizontal cylinders in film
condensation.
57
In Summary: For Laminar Flow of Film Condensation:
Thickness of the film
[ ]
1/ 4
4 𝑘𝑙 𝜇 𝑙 (𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇 𝑠)
𝛿(𝑥)=
𝑔 𝜌 𝑙 ( 𝜌 𝑙 − 𝜌 𝑣 )h 𝑓𝑔
Heat transfer coefficient & correlation
[ ]
3 ′ 1/ 4
𝑔 𝜌 𝑙 (𝜌 𝑙 − 𝜌 𝑣 )𝑘 h
𝑙 𝑓𝑔
h 𝐿 =0.943
𝜇𝑙 (𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇 𝑠 )𝐿
(10.38)
(10.39)
The previous average modified Nusselt number equations are associated with the film thickness , at the bottom of
the plate (x = L). If is unknown, rewrite the equation to eliminate Re, by combining Eqns. 10.34 and 10.36:
Where:
Therefore:
63
EXAMPLE 10.3
64
EXAMPLE 10.3
• Since we assume the film thickness is small relative to the cylinder diameter
(1st Assumption), we may use the correlations for flat plate (Chapter 10.7 and
10.8) to a vertical cylinder. The Jakob number,
65
EXAMPLE 10.3
• With P = 1501
66
EXAMPLE 10.3
• The heat transfer rate, and the rate of condensation can be calculated by
Heat transfer
rate
Condensation rate
67
EXAMPLE 10.3
• In order to check whether that our assumption regarding to the film thickness
is correct or not, we may use
• Hence δ(L) ˂< (D/2 =0.04 m), and use of the vertical plate correlation for a
vertical cylinder is justified.
68
10.9 FILM
CONDENSATION
ON RADIAL SYSTEMS 69
FILM CONDENSATION ON
RADIAL SYSTEMS • The Nusselt analysis in Section 10.7 can be extended to
laminar film condensation on the outer surface of a sphere
or a horizonal cylinder, and the average Nusselt number is:
(10.46)
• Where: C = 0.826 for the sphere, and 0.729 for the tube. See conditions
for the properties for Eqn. 10.32 for all equations in this section.
• When a liquid-vapor interface is curved, pressure difference are
established across the interface by the effect of surface tension, as given by
the Young-Laplace equation for 2D:
72
EXAMPLE 10.4
73
EXAMPLE 10.4
• Rearrange
to
74
EXAMPLE 10.4
• Thus,
• The condensation rate per unit length of tubing can be calculated by,
Answer 1
75
EXAMPLE 10.4
• The minimum enhancement attributable to the annular fins can be calculated by,
76
EXAMPLE 10.4 – ADDITIONAL COMMENTS Equation 10.49
77
10.10 CONDENSATION
IN
HORIZONTAL TUBES 78
Condensation inside Horizontal Tubes
• Commonly used in refrigeration and AC systems.
• Vapor condenses inside horizontal tubes.
• Conditions inside the tube depends on the velocity of
vapor (um,v), the mass fraction of vapor (X), and the
fluid properties.
• For low vapor velocity (Fig. 10.16 a): fluid
Low vapor velocity. High vapor velocity.
condenses in the upper regions and flows
downward to a larger pool of liquid. Then the liquid
pool is propelled by the shear forces from the vapor.
• For high vapor velocity (Fig. 10.16 b): the two-
Condition of low vapor velocity: phase flow becomes turbulent and annular with
vapor in the middle with decreasing diameter.
Note: for both equations, evaluate all properties at Tsat, and use when the mass flow rate per unit c.s.a.
tube exceeds 500 kg/s/m2.
• For intermediate vapor velocities:
Complex equations. See Dobson and Cato (1998).
80
Enhancing Condensation by Microfins
81
10.11 DROPWISE
CONDENSATION
82
Dropwise Condensation
• Typically, h for dropwise condensation is an order of magnitude larger than that of film
condensation.
• In heat exchanger with dropwise condensation, other thermal resistances may be significantly
larger.
• Correlation for dropwise condensation on well promoted copper surfaces with steam, in
(this is for a vertical surface
W/(m2.K):
(using Eqn. 10.33), not for
tubes)
• Heat transfer rate: Eqn. 10.33. Condensation rate: Eqn. 10.34. Convection coeff.: Eqn. 10.27.
• Properties ae evaluated as for Eqn. 10.32.
• The effect of subcooling, Tsat –Ts on is small and may be neglected.
• Dropwise condensation transfer heat thru drops with diameter less than 100 mm.
83
Dropwise condensation: Practical insights
Common practice to use surface coating such as Silicones, teflon, assortment waxes, and fatty
acids often used as hydrophobic surface to inhibit wetting (film condensation) and stimulate
droplets.
However, coating gradually lose their effectiveness due to oxidation, fouling, peeling. It’s often
difficult to maintain coating, so usually condensation analysis are often based on the assumption of
film condensation as a more conservative/lower limit.
84
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
85
The original slides were taken from the slides given by Bergman’s book: Bergman, T.
L., A. S. Lavine, F. P. Incropera and D. P. DeWitt, “Introduction to Heat Transfer”, 6th
Ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2011. They were adopted by I Made Astina and rewritten by
Panji Prawisudha. Then the slides were enhanced and finalized by T. A. Fauzi
Soelaiman for the sole purpose of lecturing of Heat Transfer course, at the Mechanical
Engineering Department, Faculty of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at the
Institut Teknologi Bandung during Semester 1 2018-2019. The slides were further
modified to accommodate the new Curriculum 2019 in Semester 1 2019-2020. Errors
may still exist in these slides. Please refer to the original textbook for the correct ones
and inform me through email at: tafauzi@yahoo.com. The slides should not be used
for other purposes since no copyright has been obtained from John Wiley & Sons.
Thank you.
TERIMA KASIH
MS3220 TEAM