A research method used to describe and interpret the

characteristics of texts Describes the content,

structure and functions of a message in a text The
choice of elements within a text can offer evidence of
how people make sense of or understand the world. It
can also show how they wish to be understood Most
commonly uses language as a source of analysis for
the production of meaning but can also use semiotic
systems Texts do not exist in isolation and must be
read in the context of speaker, audience, genre and
historical context
In the context of cultural studies, the idea of a ‘text’
includes written and spoken language but also films,
photographs, television productions, music, artwork
etc. They can also be ‘read’ as artifacts of ‘ideology’
where the choice of elements and their composition
(how they are constructed) consciously or
unconsciously reflects a political or ideological
position Texts are ‘socially constructed’… that is, they
are created by, as well as reflect and represent, our
views of the world Linguist MAK Halliday’s definition of
a text is ‘a semantic unit containing specific textual
components, which make it ‘internally cohesive’. He
was also concerned with studying ‘the relationship
between language and other elements and aspects of
social life’ (Fairclough, 2003, 5)
‘’ ‘When I use a word,’ Humpty Dumpty said, in
rather a scornful tone, ‘it means just what I choose
it to mean – neither more nor less.’ ‘The question
is,’ said Alice, ‘whether you can make words mean
so many different things.’ ‘The question is,’ said
Humpty Dumpty, ‘which is to be master – that's
all.’ ‘’
Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland
Language is the predominant channel of
communication used by humans Language is
learned and imbibed from our social
surroundings Words are symbols: meaning is in
the use and interpretation, not in the word itself
Each speaker and reader will bring their own
interpretations to the meaning Context can alter
meaning
 Kress: language not something that is “outside
time” - • Language not a static, fixed system or as
something where “the individual language user
meets the system as a monolithic, immutable
given, which he or she may use but cannot alter.” •
Discourses reflect the users’ view of the world and
act to internalise these views via language • Lakoff
(2008): “[s]ince language is used for
communicating thought, our view of language
must also reflect our new understanding of the
nature of thought. Language is at once a surface
phenomenon and a source of power. It is a means
of expressing, communicating, accessing, and
even shaping thought”
Discourses reflect the users’ view of the world and
act to internalise these views via language •
According to Kress and Hodge (1979), naming and
labeling a phenomenon has the effect of shaping
how we think about it: boat people, illegal
immigrants, queue jumpers • The words we choose
to communicate our version of ‘reality’ will reflect
both how we experience these phenomena and
also how we wish others to see it. • Bill Lutz writes: •
I like my coffee hot; my wife says my coffee is
scalding; I say the handle of the pot is too hot; my
wife grabs it with her bare hand; I say the shirt is
red; my wife says it is orange. I say the car is small;
the salesman calls it ‘mid-sized’. What passes for a
mountain in the mid-West is called a ‘foothill’ in the
West (1996, 9).
Plot is the organized pattern or sequence of
events that make up a story. Every plot is
made up of a series of incidents that are
related to one another.
Sub-plot (underplot) is a secondary or minor
pilot which may be a variation of or a contrast
with the main plot.
Freytag’s triangle: Gustav Freytag analyzed
the structure of 5 act play in terms of
introduction, inciting moment rising action
climax falling action catastrophe. The apex
of the pyramidal structure is the climax
Plot diagram
3

4
2
1
5
1. Exposition
This usually occurs at the beginning of a novel. Here
the characters are introduced. We also learn about
the setting of the story. Most importantly, we are
introduced to the main conflict (main problem).
2. Rising Action
This part of the story begins to
develop the conflict(s). A building
of interest or suspense occurs.
3. Climax
This is the turning point of the story. Usually the
main character comes face to face with a conflict.
The main character will change in some way.
4. Falling Action
All loose ends
of the plot are
tied up. The
conflict(s) and
climax are taken
care of.
5. Resolution
The story
comes to a
reasonable
ending.
Plot diagram
 Types of Conflict
Internal External
A struggle that takes place in A struggle between a
a character’s mind. character and an outside
force.
 Character vs. Self
 Character vs. Character
 Character vs. Society
 Character vs. Nature
Characters and Point

of View
1. Participant (first person):
Point of view: The lens
is a character in the story
through which a reader that tells it from his or her
views a story. own eyes. The reader tends
Point of view is the way to believe the events more
the author allows you to easily because the narrator
“see” and “hear” what’s uses the pronoun ‘I, me,
my, mine, myself’ while
going on.
telling the story. It is
subjective. It has two types:
Narrator as a major
character, narrator as a
minor character.
2.Non-participant (third person)
Narrator usually isn’t involved.
Tells other's stories.
Lots of “He,” “She,” & character names.

Three Types of Third-Person Narration

Third-Person Omniscient
Narrator is all knowing.
Narrator tells thoughts and feelings of more than one
character.

Omni = All Scient = Knowing

Example
Tim was mad at Shay. He blamed her. Shay knew
Tim would be mad, but she wanted to live her life.
Selective Omniscience (Third-Person Limited)
Narrator is limited to one character.
Tells thoughts & feelings of one character

Example
Tim was mad at Shay. He blamed her. Shay just
left without saying anything. She left a note and then
left him.
Third-Person Objective
Narrator does not reveal any character’s thoughts
or feelings.
Only character’s dialogue and actions are narrated.
Example
Tim slammed the door. He walked upstairs & read a
note from Shay. He kicked her trash can & started
crying.
Tips on Identifying
Check 1st or 2nd-person before worrying about
objective, limited, or omniscient.

Ask, “Who’s story is the narrator telling: his, mine, or

someone else’s?”

Focus on narration not dialogue.

Characterization: Introduction, presentation
and description of characters in a work of
fiction. The means by which an author
establishes character. An author may directly
describe the appearance and personality of
character or show it through action or
dialogue.
Direct Characterization
The author or narrator makes direct statements
about a character’s traits. The author tells us about
the character’s personality to our face.
TELLING
Example:
“The patient boy and quiet girl were both well
mannered and did not disobey their mother.”
Explanation: The author is directly telling the audience
the personality of these two children. The boy is
“patient” and the girl is “quiet.”
Indirect Characterization
The author or narrator reveals a character’s traits
through his or her actions and speech.
SHOWING
When Jane walked in the room, nobody could
help but look at her face. She commanded
attention wherever she went due to her good
looks.
Jane is beautiful.
Jim was very unlike any other businessman. He
made sure that all his clients got what they had
paid for.
Jim is honest and hardworking.
STEAL Method
Speech
Thoughts
Effect on others toward the character.
Actions
Looks
 Indirect Characterization
SPEECH - What does the character say? How does the
character speak?

THOUGHTS - What is revealed through the character’s

private thoughts and feelings?

EFFECTS - What is revealed through the character’s effect

on other people? How do other characters feel or behave
in reaction to the character?

ACTIONS - What does the character do? How does the

character behave?

LOOKS - What does the character look like? How does

the character dress?
Stream of consciousness method
The representation from within a character of the
impact of actions and emotions upon his/her inner
self. This type of characterization is best represented
by the stream of consciousness novel where through
interior monologues, the subconscious or
unconscious mind of the character is revealed.
Direct or Indirect Characterization?
A. Ed Johnson scratched his head in confusion as the
sales rep explained Dralco’s newest engine
performance diagnostic computer. The old mechanic
hated modern electronics, preferring the old days
when all he needed was a stack of manuals and a good
set of tools.
Direct!
Direct or Indirect Characterization?
B. “That Ed Johnson,” said Anderson, watching
the old mechanic scratch his head in confusion as
the sales rep explained Dralco’s newest engine
performance diagnostic computer. “He hasn’t got
a clue about modern electronics. Give him a good
set of tools and a stack of yellowing manuals with
a carburetor needing repair, and he’d be happy as
a hungry frog in a fly-field.”
Indirect!