RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

DATA TYPE & STRUCTURES

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Ayush (09)
Diksha(10)
Rishit (22)
Sahil (24)
Snigdha(30)
Suman (31)
 CONTENTS
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…
1
Data
type……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2
Method of data collection………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……3
Content of data……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....4
Classification of data structure…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
Difference Primary vs secondary data…………………..………………………………………………………………………………….6
Content of Data…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………7-8
Research data formats…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………9
Data CollectionMethods……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….10-11
Purpose od research data………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….12
Application of Research data……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….13
Advantages of Research data……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………..14
Limitation of research data……………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………15
Types of data……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………
16
Nominal data………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……17
Ordinaldata………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...18
Intervaldata……………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………….19
Discrete and continuous data……………………………………………………………………………………….………………….……….20
 DATA TYPES
Criterias for Classification:

● Method of Data Collection

○ Primary Data
○ Secondary Data
● Content of Data
○ Qualitative Data
○ Quantitative Data
 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

● Primary Data: This type of data is collected by the researcher directly from the source. It can include data gathered through surveys, experiments,
interviews, or observation. Primary data is often used to answer specific research questions or to test hypotheses.

Primary Data can be collected using following methods:

○ Observation method
○ Interview method
○ Through questionnaires
○ Through schedules
○ Other methods which include
■ Warranty cards
■ Distributor audits
■ Pantry audits
■ Consumer panels
■ Using mechanical devices
■ Through projective techniques
■ Depth interviews
■ Content analysis.
 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

● Secondary Data: This type of data is collected by someone other than the
researcher. It can include data from sources such as government reports,
academic journals, or industry publications. Secondary data is often used to
supplement or support primary data or to provide context for a research project
○ Various publications of the central, state are local governments
○ Various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies
and their subsidiary organisations
○ Technical and trade journals
○ Books, magazines and newspapers
○ Reports and publications of various associations connected with
business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc
○ Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in
different fields
○ Public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of
published information.
DIFFERENCE: PRIMARY VS. SECONDARY DATA
 CONTENT OF DATA

● Qualitative Data: This type of data is non-numerical and often involves the collection and analysis of words, images, or sounds. It is often gathered
through methods such as interviews, focus groups, or observation. Qualitative data can be analyzed using techniques such as content analysis, thematic
analysis, or discourse analysis.

Some examples of Qualitative data are as:

○ Interview Transcripts
○ Observational Notes
○ Open-Ended Survey Responses
○ Focus Group Transcripts
○ Diaries and Journals
○ Qualitative Coding
○ Narratives and Stories
○ Content analysis of Text, Image, or Video
○ Field Notes
○ Qualitative Surveys
 CONTENT OF DATA

● Quantitative Data: This type of data involves the

collection and analysis of numerical data. It is often
gathered through surveys, experiments, or other types
of structured data collection methods. Quantitative
data can be analyzed using statistical techniques to
identify patterns or relationships in the data.

Some examples of Quantitative data are as:

○ Numerical Surveys
○ Tests and Assessments
○ Biometric Data
○ Financial Data
○ Demographic Data
○ Census Data
○ Scientific Measurements
○ Performance Metrics
○ Traffic and Transportation Data
 RESEARCH DATA FORMATS
There are several formats in which research data can be collected and stored. Some common formats include:

 Text: This format includes any type of written data, such as interview transcripts, survey responses, or open-ended questionnaire answers.
 Numeric: This format includes any data that can be expressed as numerical values, such as measurements or counts.
 Audio: This format includes any recorded data in an audio form, such as interviews or focus group discussions.
 Video: This format includes any recorded data in a video form, such as observations of behavior or experimental procedures.
 Images: This format includes any visual data, such as photographs, drawings, or scans of documents.
 Mixed media: This format includes any combination of the above formats, such as a survey response that includes both text and numeric data,
or an observation study that includes both video and audio recordings.
 Sensor Data: This format includes data collected from various sensors or devices, such as GPS, accelerometers, or heart rate monitors.
 Social Media Data: This format includes data collected from social media platforms, such as tweets, posts, or comments.
 Geographic Information System (GIS) Data: This format includes data with a spatial component, such as maps or satellite imagery.
 Machine-Readable Data: This format includes data that can be read and processed by machines, such as data in XML or JSON format.
 Metadata: This format includes data that describes other data, such as information about the source, format, or content of a dataset.

https://researchmethod.net/research-data/
 DATA COLLECTION METHOD
Some common research data collection methods include:

 Surveys: Surveys involve asking participants to answer a series of questions about a particular topic. Surveys can be conducted online, over the
phone, or in person.
 Interviews: Interviews involve asking participants a series of open-ended questions in order to gather detailed information about their experiences
or perspectives. Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or via video conferencing.
 Focus groups: Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of participants to discuss a particular topic or issue in depth. The group is
typically led by a moderator who asks questions and encourages discussion among the participants.
 Observations: Observations involve watching and recording behaviors or events as they naturally occur. Observations can be conducted in person
or through the use of video or audio recordings.
 Experiments: Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables in order to measure the effect on an outcome of interest. Experiments can
be conducted in a laboratory or in the field.
 Case studies: Case studies involve conducting an in-depth analysis of a particular individual, group, or organization. Case studies typically
involve gathering data from multiple sources, including interviews, observations, and document analysis.
 Secondary data analysis: Secondary data analysis involves analyzing existing data that was collected for another purpose. Examples of
secondary data sources include government records, academic research studies, and market research reports.

https://researchmethod.net/research-data/
 ANALYSIS METHOD
Some common research data analysis methods include:

● Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics involve summarizing and describing the main features of a dataset, such as the mean, median, and
standard deviation. Descriptive statistics are often used to provide an initial overview of the data.
● Inferential statistics: Inferential statistics involve using statistical techniques to draw conclusions about a population based on a sample of data.
Inferential statistics are often used to test hypotheses and determine the statistical significance of various relationships.
● Content analysis: Content analysis involves analyzing the content of text, audio, or video data to identify patterns, themes, or other meaningful
features. Content analysis is often used in qualitative research to analyze open-ended survey responses, interviews, or other types of text data.
● Discourse analysis: Discourse analysis involves analyzing the language used in text, audio, or video data to understand how meaning is constructed
and communicated. Discourse analysis is often used in qualitative research to analyze interviews or other types of text data.
● Network analysis: Network analysis involves analyzing the relationships between entities, such as individuals or organizations, in a network.

https://researchmethod.net/research-data/
 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH DATA
Research data serves several important purposes, including:

 Supporting scientific discoveries: Research data provides the basis for scientific discoveries and innovations. Researchers use data to test
hypotheses, develop new theories, and advance scientific knowledge in their field.
 Validating research findings: Research data provides the evidence necessary to validate research findings. By analyzing and interpreting data,
researchers can determine the statistical significance of relationships between variables and draw conclusions about the research question.
 Promoting transparency and accountability: Research data promotes transparency and accountability by allowing other researchers to verify and
replicate research findings. Data sharing also promotes transparency by allowing others to examine the methods used to collect and analyze data.
 Supporting education and training: Research data can be used to support education and training by providing examples of research methods, data
analysis techniques, and research findings. Students and researchers can use data to learn new research skills and to develop their own research
projects.

https://researchmethod.net/research-data/
 APPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH DATA
Research data has numerous applications across various fields, including social sciences, natural sciences, engineering, and health sciences. The applications
of research data can be broadly classified into the following categories:

 Academic research: Research data is widely used in academic research to test hypotheses, develop new theories, and advance scientific
knowledge. Researchers use data to explore complex relationships between variables, identify patterns, and make predictions.
 Business and industry: Research data is used in business and industry to make informed decisions about product development, marketing, and
customer engagement. Data analysis techniques such as market research, customer analytics, and financial analysis are widely used to gain
insights and inform strategic decision-making.
 Healthcare: Research data is used in healthcare to improve patient outcomes, develop new treatments, and identify health risks. Researchers use
data to analyze health trends, track disease outbreaks, and develop evidence-based treatment protocols.
 Education: Research data is used in education to improve teaching and learning outcomes. Data analysis techniques such as assessments,
surveys, and evaluations are used to measure student progress, evaluate program effectiveness, and inform policy decisions.
 Government and public policy: Research data is used in government and public policy to inform decision-making and policy development.
Data analysis techniques such as demographic analysis, cost-benefit analysis, and impact evaluation are widely used to evaluate policy
effectiveness, identify social or economic challenges, and develop evidence-based policy solutions.
 Environmental management: Research data is used in environmental management to monitor environmental conditions, track changes, and
identify emerging threats. Data analysis techniques such as spatial analysis, remote sensing, and modeling are used to map environmental
features, monitor ecosystem health, and inform policy decisions.

https://researchmethod.net/research-data/
 ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH DATA
Research data has numerous advantages, including:

 Empirical evidence: Research data provides empirical evidence that can be used to support or refute theories, test hypotheses, and inform decision-
making. This evidence-based approach helps to ensure that decisions are based on objective, measurable data rather than subjective opinions or
assumptions.
 Accuracy and reliability: Research data is typically collected using rigorous scientific methods and protocols, which helps to ensure its accuracy and
reliability.
 Replicability: Research data can be replicated and validated by other researchers, which helps to promote transparency and accountability in research
 Insights and discoveries: Research data can provide insights into complex relationships between variables, identify patterns and trends, and reveal new
discoveries. These insights can lead to the development of new theories, treatments, and interventions that can improve outcomes in various fields.
 Efficiency and cost-effectiveness: Research data can help to improve efficiency and cost-effectiveness by identifying areas where resources can be
directed most effectively. By using data to identify the most promising approaches or interventions, researchers can optimize the use of resources and
improve outcomes.

https://researchmethod.net/research-data/
 LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH DATA

Research data has several limitations that researchers should be aware of, including:

 Incomplete data: Research data can be incomplete or missing, which can affect the validity of the findings. Researchers must ensure that data is
complete and representative to ensure that their findings are reliable.
 Limited scope: Research data may be limited in scope, which can limit the generalizability of the findings. Researchers must carefully consider the
scope of their research and ensure that their findings are applicable to the broader population.
 Data quality: Research data can be affected by issues such as measurement error, data entry errors, and missing data, which can affect the quality of the
data. Researchers must ensure that data is collected and analyzed using rigorous methods to minimize these issues.
 Data security: Research data must be protected to prevent unauthorized access or use. Researchers must ensure that data is stored and transmitted
securely to protect the confidentiality and integrity of the data.
 TYPES OF DATA

Two broad kinds of data are: qualitative data and quantitative data

Based on their mathematical properties, data are divided into four groups: NOIR
 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio
They are ordered with their increasing accuracy powerfulness of measurement preciseness wide application of
statistical techniques

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346081552
 NOMINAL DATA
 Nominal means name and count; data are alphabetic or numerical in name only
 They are categories without order or direction
 Their use is restricted to keeping track of people, objects and events
 They are least powerful in measurement with no arithmetic origin, order, direction or distance relationship
 Hence nominal data is of restricted or limited use

Examples of Nominal Data

Gender, marital status or any alphabetic/ numeric code without intrinsic order or ranking

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346081552
 ORDINAL DATA
 Ordinal means rank or order
 Ordinal data place events in order; They are ordered categories like rankings or scaling
 Ordinal data allows for setting up inequalities and nothing much
 Adjacent ranks need not be equal in their differences
 Has no absolute value (only relative position in the inequality)
 More precise comparisons are not possible

Examples of Ordinal Data

Ranks or grades of students; Quality rating of service or product

The inequalities like U < G < P < D does not help to know differences between any two of them cannot be said to be same (say, difference
between U and G is not same as G and P)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/34608155
 INTERVAL DATA
INTERVAL (OR SCORE/ MARK) DATA

 Interval data in addition to ranking (setting up inequalities) further allow for forming differences
 For interval data there is no absolute zero; unique origin does not exists
 Interval data are more powerful than ordinal scale due to equality of intervals

Examples:
Temperature in Fahrenheit, Standardised scores

Ratio Data
● Ratio data allow for forming quotients in addition to setting up inequalities and forming differences
● All mathematical operations (manipulations with real numbers) are possible on ratio data
● It can have an absolute or true zero and represent the actual amount/ value
● he most precise data and allow for application of all statistical techniques

Examples:
Height, weight, age
 DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS DATA

DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS DATA

 Numerical data could be either discrete or continuous

 Continuous data can take any numerical value (within a range); For example, weight, height, etc.
 There can be an infinite number of possible values in continuous data
 Discrete data can take only certain values by a finite ‘jumps’, i.e., it ‘jumps’ from one value to another but does not take any intermediate value
between them (For example, number of students in the class)

Discrete and Continuous Data Example

A good example to distinguish discrete data from continuous data is digital and analogue meter or clock where digital is
discrete and analog is continuous

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346081552
 DATA REPRESENTATION

After analysing the data, and retrieving the required information as result or outcomes, the next step is to represent the data, for
better understanding of the readers.

Data can be represented in following formats in a research article:

 Textual (Descriptive)

 Tabular

 Graphical
 Pictures

 Bar Charts

 Histograms

 Line Graph

 Pie Chart etc.

 DATA STRUCTURE

The data collected & analysed is structured in a research article or research paper as per the guidelines provided by different
styles.

In this presentation, we shall discuss the data structures for two types of styles, namely:

 APA

 IEEE
 DATA STRUCTURE: APA

Title Page: What is this paper called and who wrote it?

Abstract: One-paragraph summary of the entire study

Introduction: What is the topic and why is it worth studying?

Methods: What did you do?

Results: What did you find?

Discussion: What is the significance of your results?

References: List of articles and any books cited

Tables and Figures: Graphs and Data

Appendix: Supplementary Information

Source: Fig.: Reference for APA-style

https://psychology.ucsd.edu/_files/undergrad/writingresearchpapersinapastyleguide.pdf Title page & Abstract page
 DATA STRUCTURE: IEEE

Title

Abstract

Funding Footnote

Introduction

Methods

Results and Discussions

Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Source:
https://conferences.ieeeauthorcenter.ieee.org/write-your-paper/structure-your-paper/