Introduction to Manufacturing

Processes
 Need

To create goods for human being to support living

and improve standard of life.

Producing more goods using less resource is the

target to cater needs of public in general

So productivity is of prime importance and is

achieved by reducing wastage in the form of
scrap and defective products
 Incandescent Light Bulbs
“glowing with heat”

Figure a Components of a common

Bulb Incandescent light bulb.
Source: Courtesy of General Electric Company.

Figure b Manufacturing steps in

making an incandescent light bulb.
 Manufacturing
Today, production methods have advanced to such an
extent that
(a) Aluminum beverage cans are made at rates
of more than 500 per minute, with each can costing
about Rs
1.2 to make,
(b) Holes in sheet metal are punched at rates of 800 holes
per minute, and
(c) Incandescent light bulbs are made at rates of more
than 2000 bulbs per minute.
 Manufacturing

The word manufacture first and is derived from the Latin

appeared in English in 1567 manu factus, meaning
“made by hand”.

The word manufacturing first appeared in 1683, and the word

production, which is often used interchangeably with the word
manufacturing, first appeared sometime during the 15th century.
 Manufacturing

Technologically:
Economically: (value
Physical and
addition) A step to
chemical processes
convert raw
to alter size, shape
material into useful
and properties of
product of high
material suitable
value.
for service use.
 Manufacturing- Technologically

Application of physical and chemical processes

used for changing shape, size, properties, and
appearance of raw material for required function.
 Always carried out as a sequence of operations.
 Manufacturing – Economically
( value Addition)
Transformation of materials into items of greater value by
means of one or more processing and/or assembly
operations
 Raw material processed by manufacturing processes
usable goods are obtained (high value)
 Purpose of Manufacturing

Making useable products for human being

having required attributes
 Size and Shape
 Surface Finish and controlled tolerance
 Properties and characteristics for prolong life
 Classification of Manufacturing
Processes
Solidification Processes

Particulate Processesing

Material Removal Process

Shaping Processes Deformation Processes

Processesing Property Enhancing

Heat Treatment
Operations Processes
Cleaning & Surface
treatments
Surface Processing
Manufacturing
Operations Adhesive Bonding
Processes
Welding
Permanent Joining Soldering and Brazing
Assembly Processes
Operations Adhesive Bonding

Thread Fasteners
Mechanical Fastening
Permanent Fastening
Methods
Fundamental Approaches of Manufacturing
Manufacturing Processes: Casting
Manufacturing Processes: Forming and Shaping
Manufacturing Processes: Sheet Metal Working
Manufacturing Processes: Polymer Processing
Manufacturing Processes: Joining
Manufacturing Processes: Machining
Casting Process
 Casting
 Oldest Manufacturing Process

According to historical records, casting dates back ~ 5000 years B.C (for Arrow
heads, weapons e.t.c)
Casting
Casting
 Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold
where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.
• Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze
 Casting
Principle of the Process
 Mould with required cavity is created
 Metal is heated above its melting temperature
 Liquid metal is poured into mould
 Metal solidifies inside the cavity of the mould (casting)
 Casting is removed from the mould
 Casting
Examples of Castings

Jaivana Canon, Jaigarh Fort, Jaipur

The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera

 Casting
Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mould,

showing various features

Flask: A metal or a wooden frame with out top or a bottom, in which mould is
made.
Cope: Upper moulding flask
Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask
Drag: Lower moulding flask
 Casting

Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mould,

showing various features
Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

Pattern: A physical model or the replica of the final objected to be casted. Mould cavity
is created with the help of the pattern.
 Casting

Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mould,

showing various features
Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

Parting Line: A imaginary line that divides the drag & cope (two parts of the moulding
flask) .
 Casting

Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mould,

showing various features
Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

Moulding Sand: Binding sand which is used to make the mould . It is the mixture of
silica sand, clay and moisture in appropriate proportions and it is not supposed to loose
permeability.
 Casting

Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mould,

showing various features
Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

Core: A separate part of the mould made of sand (conventionally baked), which is
used
to make various internal cavities inside the castings.
 Casting

Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mould,

showing various features
Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

Pouring Basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which molten
metal is poured.
 Casting
Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mould,

showing various features
Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal flows from pouring basin to mould
cavity.
 Casting
Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mould,

showing various features
Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

Gate: The channel through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity.
Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from Sprue to Gate.
 Casting
Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mould,

showing various features
Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

Chaplets: The metallic supports used to help Core inside the mould cavity, to
with
stand its own weight and resist metallostatic forces.
 Casting

Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mould,

showing various features
Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

Riser: The extra void created in the mould that will be filled by the molten material.
It simple functions as a reservoir of molten metal for the castings, to compensate
material shrinkage , which occurs during solidification.
 Casting

Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mould,

showing various features
Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

Vent: Small opening provided in the mould to facilitate escape of air (from the mould)
and the gases (from the molten metal).
 Casting
Casting Procedure

Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation

Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

 Casting

Casting Procedure

Schematic Illustration of Sand

Casting Process...

Source: Kalpakjian & Schimd

 Capabilities and Advantages of Casting
• Can create complex part geometries that can not
be made by any other process
• Can create both external and internal shapes
• Some casting processes can produced parts to net
shape
(no other manufacturing operations are required)
• Can produce very large parts (with weight more than
100 tons)
• Casting can be applied to shape any metal that can
melt
• Some casting methods are suited to mass production
 Disadvantages of Casting

Different disadvantages for different casting processes:

– Limitations on mechanical properties
– Poor dimensional accuracy and surface
finish for some processes; e.g., sand casting
– Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
– Environmental problems
Sand Casting
Metal forming process
 Three Basic Bulk Deformation
Processes

1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed

between opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and
shaped between opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a
die opening, thereby taking the shape of
the opening
 Rolling
Deformation process in which work
thickness is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two
opposing rolls

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

The Rolls
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:

Pull the work into the gap between them

by friction between workpart and rolls

Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce

its cross section
 Types of Rolling
Based on workpiece geometry :
Flatrolling - used to reduce thickness
of a rectangular cross section
Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a
shape such as an I-beam
Based on work temperature :
Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount
of deformation required
Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and
plate stock
 Rolled Products Made of Steel

Some of the steel products made in a rolling

mill.
 Diagram of Flat Rolling

Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses,

work
velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
Rolling Mills
Equipment is massive and expensive
Rolling mill configurations:
Two-high – two opposing rolls
Three-high – work passes through rolls in both
directions
Four-high – backing rolls support smaller work rolls
Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills
 Two-High Rolling Mill

Various configurations of rolling mills: (a) 2-high rolling mill.

 Three-High Rolling Mill

Various configurations of rolling mills: (b) 3-high rolling mill.

 Four-High Rolling Mill

Various configurations of rolling mills: (c) four-high rolling mill.

 Cluster Mill
Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll diameters

Various configurations of rolling mills: (d) cluster mill

 Tandem Rolling Mill

A series of rolling stands in sequence

Various configurations of rolling mills: (e) tandem rolling

mill.
Rolling Operations
Thread Rolling

Ring Rolling
Other Rolling Operations
 Forging
Deformation process in which work is
compressed between two dies Oldest of the
metal forming operations, dating from about 5000
BC
 Components: engine crankshafts, connecting
rods, gears, aircraft structural components, jet
engine turbine parts
 Also, basic metals industries use forging to
establish basic form of large parts that are
subsequently machined to final shape and size .
Forging today is done either with presses or with
hammers powered by compressed air, electricity,
hydraulics, or steam.
 Forged parts can now range in weight from less
than a kilogram to 170 metric tons
 Forging can be broken down into two main types;
cold and hot forging
 Forging
 Forging is basically involves plastic deformation of
material between two dies to achieve desired
configuration.
 Depending upon complexity of the part forging is carried
out as open die forging and closed die forging.
 In open die forging, the metal is compressed by
repeated blows by a mechanical hammer and shape is
manipulated manually.
 In closed die forging, the desired configuration is
obtained by squeezing the workpiece between two
shaped and closed dies.
Forging Process
Open Die Forging or Upsetting
Impression or Closed Die Forging
Forging a Connecting Rod
 Hot Forging
Advantages Disadvantages
 Hot forging is defined ing a metal above
as work its
recrystallization temperature.
Decrease in yield Undesirable reactions
strength, which means between the metal and
that it is easier to work. the surrounding
atmosphere
Elevated temperatures Less precise tolerances
increase diffusion due to thermal
between the metals contraction and warping
from uneven cooling
Pores may reduce in size Grain structure may vary
or close completely throughout the metal
during deformation
 Cold Forging
Advantages
 Disadvantages
Cold forging is definedrking a metal below its
as wo, but usually around
recrystallization
temperature.
Better temperatureroom
surface finish Higher forces are
required
Better reproducibility and Heavier and more
interchangeability powerful equipment and
stronger tooling are
required
No Heating required Metal is less ductile and
Undesirable residual
stress may be produced
Directional properties can Metal surfaces must be
be imparted into the clean and scale-free
metal
 Drop Hammer Details

Diagram showing details of a drop hammer

for impression-die forging.
Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and heating units
at the right of the scene (photo courtesy of
Chambersburg Engineering Company).
Forging Operations
Closed Die Forging
 Extrusion
Compression forming process in which work metal
is forced to flow through a die opening to produce
a desired cross-sectional shape
Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out
of a toothpaste tube
In general, extrusion is used to produce
long parts of uniform cross sections
Two basic types:
Direct extrusion
Indirect extrusion
Direct Extrusion

Figure Direct extrusion.

Direct Extrusion
Comments on Direct Extrusion
Also called forward extrusion
As ram approaches die opening, a small portion
of billet remains that cannot be forced through die
opening
This extra portion, called the butt, must be
separated from extrudate by cutting it just beyond
the die exit
Starting billet cross section usually round
Final shape of extrudate is determined by
die opening
 Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes

Figure (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow cross

sections; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross sections.
 Indirect Extrusion

Figure 19.32 Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a

solid cross section and (b) a hollow cross section.
 Comments on Indirect
Extrusion
Also called backward extrusion and
reverse extrusion
Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
Lower rigidity of hollow ram
Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits
die
Extrusion
Advantages of Extrusion
Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot
extrusion
Limitation: part cross section must be uniform
throughout length
Grain structure and strength enhanced
in cold and warm extrusion
Close tolerances possible, especially in
cold extrusion
In some operations, little or no waste of
material
Hot vs. Cold Extrusion
Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above
its recrystallization temperature
Reduces strength and increases ductility of the
metal, permitting more size reductions and more
complex shapes
Cold extrusion - generally used to
produce discrete parts
The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high
speed cold extrusion
 Complex Cross Section

Figure A complex extruded cross section for a heat sink

(photo courtesy of Aluminum Company of America)
Extrusion Cross Sections
Extrusion Process
Wire drawing die
 Tube drawing

Figure Examples of tube drawing operations, with and without an internal mandrel.
Note that a variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced from the same
initial tube stock (which has been made by other processes).