IC Engines and Reciprocating Machines

Chapter 1: Thermodynamic Cycles and

Performance of IC Engines
 Introduction about Engines
• Heat engines can be classified as the external-combustion
type in which the working fluid is entirely separated from the
fuel-air mixture, heat from the products of combustion being
transferred through the walls of a containing vessel or boiler,
and the internal-combustion type in which the working fluid
consists of the products of combustion of the fuel-air mixture
itself.
• At the present time the reciprocating internal-combustion
engine and the steam turbine are by far the most widely used
types, with the gas turbine in wide use only for propulsion of
high-speed aircraft.
• A fundamental advantage of the reciprocating internal-
combustion engine over power plants of other types is the
absence of heat exchangers in the working fluid stream, such
• The reciprocating internal-combustion engine possesses another
important fundamental advantage over the steam plant or the gas
turbine, namely, that all of its parts can work at temperatures well
below the maximum cyclic temperature. This feature allows very high
maximum cyclic temperatures to be used and makes high cyclic
efficiencies possible.
• Advantages to the reciprocating internal-combustion engine, as
compared with the steam-turbine power plant:
1. Higher maximum efficiency.
2. Lower ratio of power-plant weight and bulk to maximum output
(except, possibly, in the case of units of more than about 10,000 hp).
3. Greater mechanical simplicity.
4. The cooling system of an internal-combustion engine handles a
much smaller quantity of heat than the condenser of a steam power
plant of equal output and is normally operated at higher surface
temperatures.
The resulting smaller size of the heat exchanger is a
great advantage in vehicles of transportation and in
other applications in which cooling must be
accomplished by atmospheric air.
• On the other hand, practical advantages of the
steam-turbine power plant over the reciprocating
internal-combustion engine are
1. The steam power plant can use a wider variety of
fuels, including solid fuels.
2. More complete freedom from vibration.
3. The steam turbine is practical in units of very large
power (up to 200,000 hp or more) on a single shaft.
Basic Types of Reciprocating Engine *
• Spark- Ignition Engine. An engine in which ignition is ordinarily
caused by an electric spark.
• Compression- Ignition Engine. An engine in which ignition
ordinarily takes place without the assistance of an electric spark or
of a surface heated by an external source of energy.
• Diesel Engine. The usual commercial form of the compression
ignition engine.
• Carbureted Engine. An engine in which the fuel is introduced to
the air before the inlet valve has closed.
• Carburetor Engine. A carbureted engine in which the fuel is
introduced to the air by means of a carburetor. (Most spark-ignition
engines are also carburetor engines.)
• Injection Engine. An engine in which the fuel is injected into the
cylinder after the inlet valve has closed
 Classification of IC Engines
1. Number of Cylinders
• An engine may be a single-cylinder engine or a multi-
cylinder engine. In a single-cylinder engine there is only one
cylinder, whereas in a multi-cylinder engine there are more
than one cylinders.
• The pistons of all the cylinders are connected to the
common crankshaft. Therefore engines may be:
• Single-cylinder: Cylinder may be vertical or horizontal
• Multi-cylinder: Cylinders may be vertical or inclined to
vertical plan
2. Cylinder Arrangement
(i) In-line Cylinder Engine: The in-Line cylinder engine is a
multi-cylinder engine, with all the cylinders arranged in one
straight line. Each cylinder has an independent crank.
• V-Engine, T-head and F-head engines
 (ii) V Cylinder Engine or V Engine: The V-cylinder engine has
two cylinders inclined at 90° to each other as shown in Fig.
The connecting rods are connected to a common crank pin.
There is a common crank for both cylinders.
 (iii) V-8 Engine: In the V-8 engine design there are two
blocks inclined at 90° to each other and each block has four
cylinders.
 3. Valve Arrangement in Cylinder Head Assembly
 (i) T-head Engine: In the T-head engine the valves are
arranged as shown in Fig. The suction valve (SV) and the
exhaust valve (EV) are on the cylinder block in opposite
directions.
 (ii) F-head Engine: In the F-head engine one valve is in the
cylinder block and the other valve is in the cylinder head as
• (iii) L-head Engine: In the L-head engine the suction and
exhaust valves are arranged side by side in the cylinder
block as shown in Fig.
• (iv) I-head Engine: In the I-head engine the suction and
exhaust valves are arranged in the cylinder head as
shown in Fig.
• (v) Overhead Engine: In the overhead engine the
suction and exhaust valves are arranged in the cylinder
head. The cylinder head has a hemispherical shape as
shown in Fig. The difference between the I-head and
overhead valve engines is that the I-head valves are
actuated by push rods whereas the overhead valves are
actuated by the cams located above the cylinder head.
F-Head, I-Head and overhead engines
 4. Cooling Methods
 (i) Air-cooled Engines: Air-cooled engines have fins to radiate heat
into the surrounding air.
 (ii) Water-cooled Engines: Water-cooled engines require circulation
of water. All automobile engines, which are water-cooled, are fitted
with radiators.
 5. Fuel Used
 (i) Gasoline Engine: In the gasoline engine, gasoline (petrol) is used
as fuel. A mixture of gasoline and air is prepared outside the
cylinder and an electric spark plug is used to initiate combustion of
the compressed charge.
 (ii) Diesel Engine: The diesel engine utilizes a compressed mixture of
air and diesel prepared inside the cylinder as fuel. The heat of
compression is utilized to initiate combustion of the mixture.
 (iii) Gas Engine: In the gas engine combustible gases are used as
fuel. These engines are not commonly used in automobiles.
 6. Thermodynamic Cycles
 Engines may be classified as following based on the
thermodynamic cycle used:
 (i) Constant volume combustion cycle engine, which is also called
Otto cycle engine.
 (ii) Constant pressure combustion cycle engine, which is also called
Diesel cycle engine.
 (iii) Mixed cycle engine which has partial combustion at constant
volume and partial combustion at constant pressure.
 7. Mechanical Cycles
 (i) Two-stroke Cycle Engine: The two-stroke engine completes its
thermodynamic cycle in two strokes of the piston (one revolution
of the crank).
 (ii) Four-stroke Cycle Engine: The engine which completes its
thermodynamic cycle in four strokes of the piston (two revolutions
 8. Ignition System
 (i) Spark Ignition Engine: A spark ignition engine is either a
gasoline engine or a gas engine. The electrical energy
required to produce spark in the spark plug is obtained either
from a battery or a magneto.
 (ii) Compression Ignition Engine: Compression ignition
engines are diesel engines in which air is highly compressed
to raise its temperature and initiate combustion when diesel
fuel is injected.
 9. Lubrication Systems
 Three systems for lubricating the moving engine parts are
used:
 (i) Petrol lubrication system
 (ii) Wet sump lubrication system
IDEAL CYCLES
• The actual thermodynamic and chemical processes in
internal-combustion engines are too complex for
complete theoretical analysis.
• Under these circumstances it is useful to imagine a
process which resembles the real process in question but
is simple enough to lend itself to easy quantitative
treatment.
• In heat engines the process through which a given mass
of fluid passes is generally called a cycle.
• For present purposes, the imaginary process is called an
ideal cycle, and an engine which might use such a cycle,
an ideal engine.
• The Carnot cycle and the Carnot engine, both familiar in
THE AIR CYCLE
• In selecting an idealized process one is always faced with
the fact that the simpler the assumptions, the easier the
analysis, but the farther the result from reality. In internal-
combustion engines an idealized process called the air
cycle has been widely used.
• An air cycle is a cyclic process in which the medium is a
perfect gas having under all circumstances the specific
heat and molecular weight of air at room temperature.
Therefore, for all such cycles molecular weight is 29, Cp is
0.24 Btu/Ibm °F (1.005kJ/kg K) and Cv is 0.1715 Btu/Ibm
°F (0.718 kJ/kgK).
• A cyclic process is one in which the medium is returned to
the temperature, pressure, and state which obtained at
the beginning of the process.
• A perfect gas is a gas which has a constant specific
heat and which follows the equation of state
• pV = M/m RT
where p = unit pressure , V = volume of gas
M = mass of gas , m = molecular weight of gas
Ru = universal gas constant , T = absolute temperature
• Any consistent set of units may be used; for example,
if pressure is in Newton per square meter, volume is
in cubic meter, mass is in kg, molecular weight is
dimensionless, temperature is in degrees Celsius
(OR) , that is, degrees Kelvin + 273, then Ru in this
system is 8314 J/k-mol., R/m = R for air using these
units has the numerical value 287 J/kgK.
The ideal air standard Otto cycle
The Otto cycle is usually used as a basis of comparison for spark ignition
and high-speed compression ignition engines. The cycle consists of four
non -flow processes, as shown in figure. The compression and expansion
processes are assumed to be adiabatic (no heat transfer) and reversible,
and thus isentropic. The processes are as follows:
1-2 isentropic compression of air through a volume ratio V1/ V2, the
compression ratio R, Rc or r.
2-3 addition of heat Q23 at constant volume
3-4 isentropic expansion of air to the original volume
4-1 Heat rejection Q41 at constant
volume to complete the cycle

Fig. Ideal Air Standard Otto Cycle

And substituting into efficiency of Otto equation , gives

The value of ȠOtto depends on the compression ratio, r, and not the
temperatures in the cycle. To make a comparison with mechanical
engine, only the compression ratio needs to be specified.
Diesel cycle- thermodynamic cycle for low speed CI/diesel engine
-Reversible adiabatic compression and expansion process
-Constant pressure heat addition (combustion) and heat rejection
process (exhaust)
Figure depicts the diesel
cycle.
 Fuel-Air Cycle
• Theoretical cycle based on the actual properties of the
cylinder contents is called the fuel – air cycle. The fuel – air
cycle take into consideration the following:
1- The actual composition of the cylinder contents.
2- The variation in the specific heat of the gases in the cylinder.
3- The dissociation effect.
4- The variation in the number of moles present in the cylinder
as the pressure and temperature change.
5- No chemical changes in either fuel or air prior to
combustion.
6- Combustion takes place instantaneously at top dead center.
7- All processes are adiabatic.
8- The fuel is mixed well with air.
The Actual Cycle:
• The actual cycle (see Fig. (3) experienced by internal
combustion engines is an open cycle with changing
composition, actual cycle efficiency is much lower
than the air standard efficiency due to various
losses occurring in the actual engine.
Comparison of P-V Diagram of Air-standard and Fuel –
Air cycle for SI engine:
• 1- Losses due to variation of specific heats with temperature. All
gases, except mono-atomic gases, show an increase in specific
heat as temperature increase. The specific heat may be written in
the form: C = a + b T + c 𝑇2 where T is the absolute temperature
and a, b and c are constants for any specific gas. 𝐶𝑣 and 𝐶𝑝
increase with temperature but:
 Engine Testing
Why an engine needs a test?
• To find out performance before mass production
and fitting it into a vehicle.
• To improve the design and configuration, to
integrate new materials and technology
• Historically, the test basically was to find out the
power and fuel consumption, also to test
effectiveness of cooling, vibration and noise,
lubrication, controllability, etc.
• Modern regulations force engines to reduce
harmful emission and comply stringent regulations,
therefore, test is getting more and more
Engine Torque
• The fundamental output of the engine
• Usually expressed in Nm or BMEP
• Torque is measured by a dynamometer or an ‘in-line’ device
• BMEP is the accepted figure used to compare the
performance of engines of differing capacities.
• BMEP - Brake Mean Effective Pressure - average effective
pressure of all stroke cycles(whether they are Two or Four
Cycles).
• BMEP is a function of temperature of the gases in the
cylinder.
• To increase the temperature needs to burn more fuel or
to increase burning efficiency.
• Torque is a function of BMEP and displacement.
• A high BMEP and a low rpm, or a low BMEP and a high
rpm, can equal the same power.
• Larger valves, ports, pipes, compression, etc. all can
increase the volumetric efficiency of the engine. The
most effective is to increase the number of cylinders. The
more efficient it is, the higher the BMEP.
• Pressure increases by compression alone can increase
pumping losses, and in the amount of heat lost to the
 Performance of IC Engines
• Engine performance is an indication of the degree of
success of the engine performs its assigned task, i.e.
the conversion of the chemical energy contained in the
fuel into the useful mechanical work. The performance
of an engine is evaluated on the basis of the
following :
(a) Specific Fuel Consumption.
(b) Brake Mean Effective Pressure.
(c) Specific Power Output.
(d) Specific Weight.
(e) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
• The particular application of the engine decides the
• For Example : For an aircraft engine specific weight is
more important whereas for an industrial engine specific
fuel consumption is more important.
• For the evaluation of an engine performance few more
parameters are chosen and the effect of various
operating conditions, design concepts and modifications
on these parameters are studied. The basic performance
parameters are the following :
(a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency.
(b) Mean Effective Pressure and Torque.
(c) Specific Output, (d) Volumetric Efficiency.
(e) Fuel-air Ratio, (f) Specific Fuel Consumption.
(g) Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance.
Power and Mechanical Efficiency
• The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain
mechanical power.
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to
the product of force and linear velocity or the product of
torque and angular velocity.
• Thus, the measurement of power involves the measurement
of force (or torque) as well as speed. The force or torque is
measured with the help of a dynamometer and the speed
by a tachometer.
• The power developed by an engine and measured at the
output shaft is called the brake power (bp) and is given by,
BP = 2πNT/ 60 (W)
where, T is torque in N-m and N is the rotational speed in
• The total power developed by combustion of fuel in
the combustion chamber is more than the bp and is
called indicated power (ip). Of the power developed
by the engine, i.e. ip, some power is consumed in
overcoming the friction between moving parts.
• Indicated Power: It is the power developed in the
cylinder and thus, forms the basis of evaluation of
combustion efficiency or the heat release in the
cylinder.
• If the mean effective pressure is based on bp it is called
the brake mean effective pressure (bmep), and if based on
ihp it is called indicated mean effective pressure (imep).
Similarly, the friction mean effective pressure (fmep) can
be defined as,
fmap = imep − bmep
• Specific output of an engine is defined as the brake power
(output) per unit of piston displacement and is given by,
• Specific output = BP / AxL = Constant × bmep × rpm
• The specific output consists of two elements – the bmep
(force) available to work and the speed with which it is
working.
• Therefore, for the same piston displacement and bmep an
engine operating at higher speed will give more output.
• Volumetric Efficiency
• Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the
measure of the degree to which the engine fills its swept
volume.
• It is defined as the ratio of the mass of air inducted into the
engine cylinder during the suction stroke to the mass of the
air corresponding to the swept volume of the engine at
atmospheric pressure and temperature. Alternatively, it can
be defined as the ratio of the actual volume inhaled during
suction stroke measured at intake conditions to the swept
volume of the piston.
• The amount of air taken inside the cylinder is dependent on
the volumetric efficiency of an engine and hence puts a
limit on the amount of fuel which can be efficiently burned
• Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A)
• Fuel-air ratio (F/A) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to
the mass of air in the fuel-air mixture. Air-fuel ratio
(A/F) is reciprocal of fuel-air ratio. Fuel-air ratio of the
mixture affects the combustion phenomenon in that it
determines the flame propagation velocity, the heat
release in the combustion chamber, the maximum
temperature and the completeness of combustion.
• Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
• Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of
fuel consumed for each unit of brake power
developed per hour. It is a clear indication of the
efficiency with which the engine develops power from
Thermal Efficiency
• Thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of
the output to that of the chemical energy input in the
form of fuel supply. It may be based on brake or
indicated output.
• It is the true indication of the efficiency with which the
chemical energy of fuel (input) is converted into
mechanical work. Thermal efficiency also accounts for
combustion efficiency, i.e., for the fact that whole of the
chemical energy of the fuel is not converted into heat
energy during combustion.
• Brake thermal efficiency = BP / (mf x CV)
where, Cv = Calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg, and
• Indicated efficiency Ƞi: When comparing the
performance of engines it is sometimes useful to
isolate the mechanical losses. This leads to the use
of indicated (arbitrary overall) efficiency as a means
of examining the thermodynamic processes of an
engine.
Heat Balance Test:
• The energy input to the engine goes out in various forms
– a part is in the form of brake output, a part into
exhaust, and the rest is taken by cooling water and the
lubricating oil, friction losses and radiation losses..
• The break-up of the total energy input into these
different parts is called the heat balance.
• The main components in a heat balance are brake
output, coolant losses, heat going to exhaust, radiation
and other losses.
• Preparation of heat balance sheet gives us an idea about
the amount of energy wasted in various parts and allows
us to think of methods to reduce the losses so incurred.
• The heat balance is generally done on second basis or minute
basis or hour basis.
• The heat supplied to the engine is only in the form of fuel-heat
and that is given by Qs = mf X CV
• Where mf is the mass of fuel supplied per minute or per sec. and
CV is the lower calorific value of the fuel.
• The various ways in which heat is used up in the system is given
by
(a) Heat equivalent of BP = kW = kJ/sec. = kJ/min.
(b) Heat carried away by cooling water
Qcw= Cpw X mw (Two – Twi) kJ/min.
Where mw is the mass of cooling water in kg/min or kg/sec
circulated through the cooling jacket and (Two – Twi) is the rise in
temperature of the water passing through the cooling jacket of
the engine and Cpw is the specific heat of water in kJ/kg-K (4.187
(c) Heat carried away by exhaust gases
Qg = mg Cpg (Tge – Ta) (kJ/min.) or (kJ/sec)
Where mg is the mass of exhaust gases in kg/min. or kg/sec and it is
calculated by using gas calorimeter.
• Tg = Temperature of burnt gases coming out of the engine.
• Ta = Ambient Temperature.
• Cpg = Specific Heat of exhaust gases in (kJ/kg-K)
(d) A part of heat is lost by convection and radiation as well as due to the
leakage of gases. Part of the power developed inside the engine is also
used to run the accessories as lubricating pump, cam shaft and water
circulating pump. These cannot be measured precisely and so this is
known as unaccounted ‘losses’.
This unaccounted heat energy is calculated by the different between heat
supplied Qs and the sum of (a) + (b) (c).
• The results of the above calculations are tabulated in a table and this
table is known as “Heat Balance Sheet”. It is generally practice to
represent the heat distribution as percentage of heat supplied. This is also
 Measurement of Friction Power
• The difference between Indicated Power (IP) and Brake Power (BP) is
called frictional power which includes friction losses in the flywheel,
governor, oil pump, water pump, and other moving parts. Therefore you
can calculate frictional power (FP) by using the formula:
F.P = I.P – B.P
• Friction power includes the frictional losses and the pumping losses. During
suction and exhaust strokes the piston must move against a gaseous
pressure and power required to do this is called the “pumping losses”. The
friction loss is made up of the energy loss due to friction between the
piston and cylinder walls, piston rings and cylinder walls, and between the
crank shaft and camshaft and their bearings, as well as by the loss incurred
by driving the essential accessories, such as water pump, ignition unit etc.
• There are different methods of measurement of friction power(F.P) as
follows:
 Measuring I.P and B.P
 Morse test
 Willan’s line method
 Motoring test and Retardation test
 Morse Test
• Morse Test is applicable to multi-cylinder engines.
• The engine is run at desired speed and output is noted.
• Then one of the cylinders is cut out by short circuiting spark plug (SI
engine) or disconnecting fuel connection(CI engine).
• Under this condition other cylinders “motor” this cut cylinder. The
output is measured by keeping speed constant to original value.
• The difference in output is measure of the indicated power of cut-out
cylinder. Thus for each cylinder indicated power is obtained to
find out total indicated power.
• Let, BP = Brake Power when all cylinders are in working condition.BP1
= Brake Power when first cylinder cut-off.BP2 = Brake Power when
second cylinder cut-off, BP3 = Brake Power when third cylinder cut-
off, BP4 = Brake Power when fourth cylinder cut-off.
• IP = Indicated Power of Engine, IP1 = Indicated Power of first cylinder,
IP2 = Indicated Power of second cylinder, IP3 = Indicated Power of
third cylinder, IP4 = Indicated Power of fourth cylinder.
• FP1, FP2, FP3, FP4 = Friction power of each cylinder.
• When, all cylinders in working condition, IP = (IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4) ………(i)
• BP = (IP1 + IP2 + IP3+ IP4) – (FP1+ FP2 + FP3 +FP4) ……….….(ii)
• First Cylinder Cut-off, BP1 = (IP2 + IP3+IP4) – (FP1+ FP2 + FP3+FP4) …. (iii)
• Where, ( FP1+ FP2 + FP3+FP4 ) in above both eqs.(ii) & (iii) remains almost
constant at constant speed.
• Subtracting Eq.(iii) from Eq.(ii), We get, Indicated Power of first cylinder,
IP1 = (BP - BP1) …….(iv)
• Similarly, Indicated Power of second cylinderIP2 = (BP - BP2) ……...(v)
• Indicated Power of third cylinderIP3 = (BP - BP3) ……….(vi)
• Indicated Power of fourth cylinderIP4 = (BP – BP4) ……….(vii)
• Putting the values of IP1, IP2, IP3, IP4¬ in eq.(i),
We get, IP = (BP - BP1) + (BP - BP2) + (BP - BP3) + (BP-BP4).……(viii)
• Frictional Power, FP = ( IP – BP ) …………………(ix)
• Mechanical Efficiency, ηm = (BP / IP) ………(x)
• Thus Morse test is used to calculate IP, FP and mechanical efficiency by
assuming FP of each cylinder remains constant.
Procedure:
• 1. The fuel level and lubricating oil level are checked.
• 2. The engine is started and the load is adjusted to 8 Kg at an
engine speed of 1500rpm.
• 3. The engine is allowed to run for some time at this condition.
Then first cylinder is cut-off by operating the lever.
• 4. The engine speed is adjusted to 1500 rpm by decreasing the
load on the engine. The load at which speed becomes 1500 rpm is
noted. In no case the accelerator be touched while adjusting the
speed.
• 5. The first cylinder is put on to working condition by operating the
lever and the engine allowed to run for some time at this states.
• 6. The second cylinder is cut-off and the load at which speed is
maintained at 1500 rpm is noted.
• 7. The above procedure is repeated for the third and fourth
 Willan’s Line Method to find FP
• This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation method.
• In this method a graph of fuel consumption (vertical axis) versus brake
power (horizontal axis) is drawn and it is extrapolated on the negative
axis of brake power (see Fig. 1).
• The intercept of the negative axis is taken as the friction power of the
engine at that speed. As shown in the figure, in most of the power range
the relation between the fuel consumption and brake power is linear
when speed of the engine is held constant and this permits
extrapolation.
• Further when the engine does not develop power, i.e. brake power = 0, it
consumes a certain amount of fuel. This energy in the fuel would have
been spent in overcoming the friction.
• Hence the extrapolated negative intercept of the horizontal axis will be
the work representing the combined losses due to friction, pumping and
as a whole is termed as the frictional loss of the engine.
• This method of measuring friction power will hold good only for a
particular speed and is applicable mainly for compression ignition
The main draw back of this method is the long distance to be
extrapolated from data between 5 and 40 % load towards the zero line
of the fuel input. The directional margin of error is rather wide
because the graph is not exactly linear.
 Engine Mapping

• Open-loop digital systems store ignition-timing and fuel mixture data

in an ECU memory.
• The data stored in the individual cells of the computer’s memory can
be represented graphically in the form of a characteristic map.
• Information for this map is found out by conducting a series
of tests on the engine and the program for these tests is called engine
mapping.
• These tests determine the performance and investigate the effects of
each variable that has some bearing on the output of the engine.
• When the effects are known, the settings that give the best perfor­
mance can be determined and recorded.
• A dynamometer is essential equipment for conducting these tests
since it can be programmed to simulate road conditions.
• The engine is loaded by means of dynamometer and the torque,
power output, economy, and emissions are measured against speed
and other factors that have certain effect on the engine output (Fig.1)
• Performance curves plotted manually or by computer represent
graphically the behavior of the engine when it is subjected to changes
in the following parameters.
• Speed
• Load (throttle opening)
• Ignition timing
• Air-fuel ratio
• Engine and ambient temperatures.
The performance curves derived from the tests are called engine
maps. Some more important maps are discussed below.

Fig. 1 Engine characteristic at

full load test
Torque Specific Fuel Consumption Loop
• To plot this map the air-fuel ratio is varied and the fuel
consumption and torque output are measured for each
setting.
• Speed is kept constant during each test so that a series of
tests is required to be conducted to cover the engine
operating range.
• Figure 2 shows a characteristic fish-hook shaped map,
which is plotted for the engine operating under full-load.
• On the y-axis (vertical axis) the specific fuel consumption
(SFC) is plotted and these values are obtained from the
equation, SFC = fuel consumption (kg/h)/brake power (kW).
• The specific fuel consumption indicates the quantity of fuel
necessary to produce one unit of power.
 Fig. 2 Torque
consumption loop

The map depicts that the engine develops low output torque but high
fuel consumption i.e. high SFC when run on a weak mixture. As the
mixture is enriched, the consumption falls to a point ‘E’ where
maximum economy is attained.
Enriching the mixture beyond this point causes an increase in torque
but at the expense of fuel. Maximum torque and power occurs at
point P. It can be seen that the chemically correct ratio of 14.7:1
provides neither maximum torque nor maximum economy and to
achieve these maximum results, the mixture must be slightly enriched
and slightly weakened respectively.
Exhaust Emission/Air-fuel Ratio
 Before exhaust emission regulation were introduced, the air-fuel mixture
used was based on the ratios required for either maximum power or
maximum economy.
 Unfortunately the 12 – 15% enrichment from the chemically correct ratio to
provide maximum power also produces a high emission of carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the
exhaust gases.
 Figure 3 represents the relationship between the release of undesirable
gases in the exhaust and the air-fuel ratios. This map illustrates that the
operation of the engine on an enriched mixture should be avoided to
minimize exhaust pollution.
 Comparing the results shown in Figs. 3 and 2, it can be seen that lean-burn
engines designed to operate with minimum exhaust pollution suffer a
considerable increase in consumption and decrease in power if the air-fuel
ratio is weakened beyond the economy point ‘E’. Since the tolerance is very
small, a close control of fuel metering is required if satisfactory output,
combined with reasonable service life of engine is to be achieved.
 Fig. 3 Exhaust Emissions

Spark Timing and Engine Performance

The effects of varying the spark timing on engine performance, Maximum power is
produced over the speed range when the spark is so timed that maximum gas pressure
occurs at 12 degrees after TDC. Reducing the spark advance for a set engine speed
reduces the power, increases the fuel consumption and, due to the slower burning of
mixture overheats the engine. An over-advanced spark also gives poor performance and
very likely causes combustion knock (detonation), which soon damages pistons and
develops a high level of noise from ‘pinking’.
In addition, the spark timing also alters the concentration of harmful constituents in the
exhaust gas. Figure 4 represents a map obtained from running an engine at one set
speed and load, and varying the ignition timing. This map provides the data for the best
setting of the spark.
 Fig. 4 Effects of Varying
Ignition Timing

Effect of Spark Timing:

The effects of spark timing can be determined by using a series of
maps so that the optimum timing can be established.
The spark timing advance is increased when the engine speed is
increased and air-fuel ratio is weakened. The spark timing advance is
decreased when the engine load is increased and exhaust emission
of HC and/or NOx is too high.
Fuel mixture requirements are related to engine load. When the
engine is under light-load, or if the vehicle is cruising, a weaker
mixture is supplied for better economy. During full-load condition
high engine power is required; hence a less-weak mixture is
supplied. Since the air-fuel ratio is mainly dictated by the load on
the engine, the spark timing should only be responsive to load and
speed, due to which most timing maps are based on these two
variables.
Three Dimensional Map

Fig. 5 Typical spark

advance map
(simplified).
• After determining the optimum angle of advance with respect to
speed based on the results of a series of engine tests at different
loads, a large number of maps can be drawn.
• However all these maps can be reduced to one by using the three-
dimensional form (Fig. 5). The x, y and z three axes of the map
represent speed, spark advance and load respectively.
• The number of tests used to construct the map detects the
accuracy of spark timing obtained. A total of 60 timing settings are
used in the simple map shown in the figure 5.
• To use the three dimensional map, consider determining the spark
advance for a speed of 32 revolution per second (rps) and a half-
load condition.
• The 32 point on the x-axis is located and the line from this point is
followed until it intersects the half-load line. The height of the map
at this intersection indicates the advance angle, which is 52 degrees
in this example.
Fuel Mixture Map
• A three-dimensional map can also be drawn to find out fuel
requirements of an engine.
• In this case the three variables are speed, air-fuel ratio and load
which are plotted on x, y and z axes respectively. The plot indicates
the air-fuel ratio required to suit the conditions of speed and load
(Fig. 6).
• This map is often called a lambda map. The term lambda is the
name of the Greek Letter ‘L’. The symbol λ is used for the chemically
correct mixture, or the stoichiometric ratio.
• At this ratio, λ = Supplied quantity of air/Theoretical air requirement
=1
When the λ is less than 1 there is insufficient air for combustion, so
the mixture is rich. When λ is more than 1 there is excess air, so the
mixture is weak.
Fig. 6 Fuel Mixture Map
 Questions
1. Define air cycle and fuel air cycle.
2. What are the advantages of the reciprocating IC engine as compared to the steam turbine
power plant.
3. Draw the p-V diagram for Otto and Diesel cycles.
4. Write the air standard thermal efficiency formula for Otto and Diesel cycle.
5. Why an engine needs a test?
6. Briefly discuss about engine torque and brake mean effective pressure.
7. Define brake power, indicated power, brake specific fuel consumption and volumetric
efficiency.
8. What is engine mapping?
9. How to find frictional power by Morse test, explain the procedure to find FP with formulae.
10. Discuss any one performance curve such as Torque – Fuel consumption loop, Exhaust
emission/ Air-fuel ratio, Spark timing and engine performance.
11. A gasoline engine working on four- stroke develops a brake power of 20.9 kW. A Morse test
was conducted on this engine and the brake power (kW) obtained when each cylinder was
made inoperative by short circuiting the spark plug are 14.9, 14.3, 14.8 and 14.5 respectively.
The test was conducted at constant speed. Find the indicated power, mechanical efficiency
and brake mean effective pressure when all the cylinders are firing. The bore of the engine is
75mm and the stroke is 90 mm. The engine is running at 3000 rpm.
12. A test on a two-stroke engine gave the following results at full load.
Speed = 350 rpm; Net brake load = 65 kg ; mean effective pressure = 3 bar ; Fuel
consumption = 4 kg/h ; Jacket cooling water flow rate = 500 kg/h ; jacket water
temperature at inlet = 20 C ; jacket water temperature at outlet = 40 C ; Test room
temperature = 20 C ; Temperature of exhaust gases = 400 C; Air used per kg of fuel = 32
kg ; cylinder diameter = 22 cm ;stroke = 28 cm; effective brake diameter = 1 m ;
Calorific value of fuel = 43 MJ/kg ; Mean specific heat of exhaust gases = 1 kJ/kg –K.
Find indicated power, brake power, mechanical efficiency and draw up a heat balance for the
test in kJ/min and in percentage.
13. A six cylinder, gasoline engine operates on the four stroke cycle. The bore of each cylinder is
80 mm and the stroke is 100 mm. The clearance volume in each cylinder is 70 cc. At a speed
of 4000 rpm and the fuel consumption is 20 kg/h. The torque developed is 150 N-m.
Calculate (i) the brake power, (ii) the brake mean effective pressure, (iii) brake thermal
efficiency if the calorific value of the fuel is 43000 kJ/kg and (iv) the relative efficiency if the
ideal cycle for the engine is Otto cycle.
Hint for this problem to find BMEP = (BP x 60000)/(Vs x n x k), where n = N/2 for four
stroke engine and k = number of cylinders.