Overview

⯈ Identifying major PV system components and their functions,

including PV modules and arrays, energy storage, power
conditioning equipment and other energy sources.

⯈ Discussing the key trends and sources of U.S. energy supply and
consumption.

⯈ Identifying the key components of the electrical utility system

and the differences between centralized and distributed
power generation.

⯈ Identifying the basic types of stand-alone and interactive PV

systems, their operating principles and major components.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 1

 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems

⯈ Solar PV systems are electrical generators that produce energy for

electrical loads and may interface with other electrical systems.

Power
Conditioning Power
Distribution Electrical
Energy Load

Source
PV Array Load
Inverter Center
Energy
Conversion

Electric
Energy Utility
Storage
Battery
(optional)

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 2

 Major System Components

⯈ Photovoltaic (PV) Array

 An assembly of PV modules that convert sunlight to DC electricity.

⯈ Power Conditioning Equipment

 Inverters, chargers and controllers that process DC power from PV arrays and
produce AC power for utilization loads.

⯈ Energy Storage
 Batteries store energy produced by PV arrays, and are used in most stand-
alone systems, but only in specially-designed grid-tied systems.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 3

PV System Components

5 1. PV modules and array

2. Combiner box
4 6
3. DC disconnect
4. Inverter (charger & controller)
5. AC disconnect
3
6. Utility service panel
7 7. Battery (optional)

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 4

 Balance-of-System Components

⯈ Balance-of-System (BOS) Components

 Mechanical or electrical equipment and hardware used to assemble and
integrate major components, and to conduct, distribute and control the flow of
power in the system.

⯈ Examples of BOS components include:

 Conductors (wiring)
 Raceways (conduit)
 Junction and combiner boxes
 Disconnect switches
 Fuses and circuit breakers
 Terminals and connectors
 Array mounting hardware

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 5

 PV Modules and Arrays
⯈ PV modules are assembled electrically and mechanically to form an
integrated DC power supply.

⯈ An array is the total DC power generating unit designed to produce a

specified electrical output.

PV Array
PV Module

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 6

 Energy Storage

⯈ Batteries are the primary type of energy storage used in PV

systems, and transform electrical and chemical energy.

⯈ Other types of energy storage systems include:

 Flywheels store kinetic energy

 Supercapacitors store electrical charge
 Fuels store chemical energy
 Hydroelectric dams and compressed air systems store potential energy

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 7

 Batteries
Flooded Lead-Acid

⯈ Batteries are used in most stand-

alone PV systems to store
energy from the PV array and
establish the operating voltage
for DC utilization equipment,
such as inverters or DC loads.

⯈ Lead-acid batteries are the most Sealed Lead-Acid

common type used in PV
systems.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 8

 Power Conditioning Equipment

⯈ Power conditioning equipment converts, controls or processes

the DC power produced by PV arrays, for interfacing with
electrical loads, utilization equipment or other electrical systems.

⯈ Power conditioning equipment includes:

 Inverters
 Charge controllers
 Battery chargers
 DC-DC converters
 Maximum power point trackers

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 9

 Inverters

⯈ Stand-Alone Inverters
 Operate from batteries and supply power independent of the utility grid.

⯈ Utility-Interactive or Grid-Connected Inverters

 Operate from PV arrays and supply power in parallel with the utility grid.

⯈ Bi-Modal or Battery-Based Interactive Inverters

 Operate as diversionary charge controllers, and produce AC power output to
regulate PV array battery charging when the grid is energized.
 Transfer PV system operation to stand-alone mode and provide backup
electric power to critical loads when the utility grid is not energized

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 10

 Inverters

Bi-Modal Inverter

Stand-Alone Inverter
Interactive Inverter

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 11

 Charge Controllers
48 V / 40 A Charge Controller

⯈ A charge controller regulates battery

charging by limiting the charging
current from a PV array, and protects
a battery from overcharge.

⯈ A load controller regulates battery

discharge current by disconnecting
electrical loads, and protects a
battery from overdischarge.

⯈ A diversion charge controller 12 V / 10 A Charge Controller

regulates battery charging by
diverting power to a DC diversion
load or grid-connected inverter.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 12

 Battery Chargers

Integral Inverter/Charger
⯈ Battery chargers are commonly
used in stand-alone hybrid and
UPS systems where an AC
power source is available, such
as a generator or the utility grid.

⯈ Many stand-alone inverters have

a built-in battery charger.
Separate Charger

Xantrex/Schneider Electric
System Components and Configurations: 4 - 13
 Uninterruptible Power Supplies

⯈ An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is an emergency power

system that supplies electrical loads when the primary source
of power is lost.

⯈ Typically includes a battery, charger, inverter and automatic

transfer switch.

⯈ Grid-connected PV systems with battery storage are a type of

UPS system, transferring loads to the battery-inverter
system when the grid de-energizes.
 Unlike most UPS systems, the PV array still charges the batteries and
extends load operating time.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 14

 Maximum Power Point Trackers

MPPT Controller
⯈ Maximum power point trackers
(MPPTs) are electronic devices
that operate PV modules or
arrays at their maximum power
output.
Module MPPT
⯈ MPPT functions are included in
all interactive inverters and in
some battery charge controllers.

⯈ Also used at the PV module and SolarMagic/National Semiconductor

source circuit level for some

applications.
Outback Power Systems

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 15

 Electrical Loads
⯈ Electrical loads include DC or AC appliances or utilization
equipment that consumes power.

⯈ DC loads typically operate from batteries and are used in some

small stand-alone PV systems, such as for lighting.

⯈ AC loads are powered by inverters, generators or the utility

grid.

⯈ Electrical loads are characterized by their operating voltage (AC

or DC), Epower
 P  t and energy consumption.
where
E = load energy consumption (kWh/day)
P = load average power (kW)
t = load operating time (hrs/day)
System Components and Configurations: 4 - 16
 Energy Sources

⯈ Basic forms of energy include thermal, chemical, electrical,

kinetic and potential energy sources:
 Solar radiation
 Fuels (biomass, fossil and alternative fuels)
 Radioactive materials
 Hydro and geothermal

⯈ Energy sources can be converted from one form to another with

various energy conversion devices.
 Steam, combustion and wind turbines
 Electrical generators
 Fuel cells
 PV devices

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 17

The Energy Dilemma

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 18

 Central Power Generation

⯈ Most power generation is centralized in remote areas and

transmitted over the grid to consumers in population areas. A
large percentage of the energy content in the fuel goes
unutilized.

CO2 + Pollution

Waste Heat
67%

33% Electricity
Fuel
100% Power Plant

(Remote from thermal users)

Thomas Casten

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 19

 Combined Heat and Power

⯈ Combined heat and power (CHP) systems utilize waste heat from
electrical power generation for other purposes.

CO2 + Pollution

Waste Heat
10%

Electricity

Fuel
100% CHP Plants 90% Steam

Chilled
Water
(located close to thermal users)
Thomas Casten

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 20

 Electrical Generators

⯈ Most electrical power is

produced from synchronous
generators that are mechanically
driven by turbines or engines.

⯈ A typical generator consists of

an electromagnet, called the field
or rotor, which rotates inside a
coil of wire with an iron core,
called the stator.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 21

 Engine Generators

⯈ Engine generators use internal

combustion engines to drive
electrical generators, and are
often used in conjunction with
off-grid PV systems.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 22

 Combustion Turbines
⯈ Combustion turbines are large power generators that are similar
to jet engines.

Caterpillar/Solar Turbines

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 23

 Microturbines
⯈ Microturbines are small gas turbine generators adapted for
distributed power and CHP applications.

Ingersoll-Rand

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 24

 Wind Turbines
⯈ Small wind turbines are sometimes used in stand-alone off-grid
PV applications. Large turbines and wind farms are becoming
increasing popular for utility-scale power generation.

Southwest Windpower

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 25

 Stirling Engines

⯈ Stirling engines use an external heat

source, such as concentrated solar
energy, to compress a gas which
expands to produce mechanical
shaft power to drive an electrical
generator.

NREL/Bill Timmerman

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 26

 Fuel Cells
⯈ Fuel cells convert chemical to electrical energy directly. Most fuel
cells combine hydrogen and oxygen to produce heat, water and
DC electricity.

Heat

Hydrogen
Fuel Cell DC Electricity
Oxygen

Water

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 27

 Electric Utility System

⯈ The electric utility system

consists of three principal
parts:

 Generation
 Transmission
 Distribution

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 28

 Types of PV Systems

⯈ Stand-Alone Systems
 Operate autonomously off-grid.
 Typically use batteries for energy storage.
 Sizing is based on electrical loads.

⯈ Interactive Systems
 Operate in parallel with the electric utility grid.
 Intended to supplement site energy use from utility.
 Operation is independent of electrical loads.
 Do not generally use batteries or provide backup for utility power.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 29

 Direct-Coupled
Stand-Alone
Systems
⯈ Direct-coupled PV systems are the most basic type of stand-
alone system.
 A DC load is matched and directly connected to a PV module or array.
 Uses no energy storage.
 Load only operates when sun is shining.

Water Pump or
Ventilation
Fan

PV Array DC Load

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 30

 Stand-Alone PV System
with Battery
Storage
⯈ Most stand-alone PV systems use batteries to store
energy produced by the array for use by loads as
required.

⯈ A self-regulating PV system does not use charge control, but the

battery is susceptible to overcharge and overdischarge.

PV Array Battery DC Load

Maximum charge must be Battery must be oversized in Load must be well-defined,

limited, typically lower relation to PV array charge operate daily and not
voltage modules are used. rates and daily load energy. subject to user control.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 31

 Stand-Alone PV Systems
with Charge
Control
⯈ A charge controller is required in most PV systems using
batteries to protect from overcharge and overdischarge, and may
also provide load control functions.

PV Array Charge DC Load

Controller

Battery

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 32

 Stand-Alone PV Systems
with Charge
Control
Charge controller protects battery
from overcharge by PV array

Charge
PV Array Battery
Controller

Battery is not protected DC Load

from overdischarge by
load.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 33

 Stand-Alone PV Systems with
Charge and Load
Control
This controller This controller
protects battery protects battery
from overcharge from overdischarge

Charge Load
PV Array DC Load
Controller Controller

Battery

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 34

 Stand-Alone PV Systems with
Multiple Charge
Controllers
PV Subarray #1 Charge
Controller #1

Charge Battery
PV Subarray #2
Controller #2

PV Subarray #3 Charge
Controller #3

DC Load or
Inverter
PV Subarray #4

One subarray may be

directly connected to battery
without charge control if
charge rates <= 3% of
battery capacity.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 35

 Stand-Alone PV Systems with
Diversionary Charge
Control
This controller protects the battery when
the diversion load is unavailable

Charge
PV Array Battery
Controller

Diversionary controller protects the

battery from overcharge by Diversion Diversion
diverting power to a diversionary Load
load Controller

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 36

 Stand-Alone PV Systems
with AC Loads

Charge
PV Array DC Load
Controller

Inverter/
Battery
Charger

AC Load AC Source
(to Charger Only)

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 37

 Hybrid System

Charge
PV Array Controller DC Load

Battery

Engine/Wind
AC Load
Generator
Inverter/

Charger
System Components and Configurations: 4 - 38
 Utility-Interactive PV System

AC Loads

PV Array Inverter Load

Center

Electric
Utility

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 39

 Utility-Interactive PV System
with Energy
Storage
Backup Primary
AC Loads AC Loads
Bypass circuit

Critical Load Inverter/

Sub Panel Main Panel
AC Out AC In
Charger
DC
In/out

Charge Electric
PV Array Battery Utility
Control

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 40

Bi-Modal System

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 41

 Summary

⯈ Major components used in PV systems include modules and

arrays, inverters, batteries, chargers and controllers.

⯈ Balance-of-system components include electrical and

mechanical equipment needed to construct a complete
PV system and integrate the major components.

⯈ Stand-alone PV systems operate off-grid and are designed to

power specific electrical loads.

⯈ Interactive PV systems are connected to the utility grid and

supplement site electrical loads.

System Components and Configurations: 4 - 42