Power & Environment Overview

Contents
Part I: DC Power System Part IV: Air conditioning System
1. Why DC power
1. What is air-conditioning system
2. Definition of Electrical Terms
2. Refrigerant
3. Power System Building Blocks
4. The Elements in a Power System 3. The Refrigeration/Cooling Cycle
5. Battery Management 3.1 Evaporation 3.2 Compression
Part II: Solar Photovoltaic System 3.3 Condensation 3.4 Expansion
1. Advantage & Disadvantage
4. Air Conditioner System Types
2. Primary Components of Solar PV system
2.1 PV array
4.1 De-centralized systems (individual room systems)

2.2 Battery 4.1.1Window air conditioning units,

2.3 Charge controller 4.1.2 Split air conditioning units,
4.1.3 Mini-heat pumps.
3. Solar PV system sizing
4.2 Semi-centralized systems (packaged systems),
Part III: UPS
4.2.1 Packaged air conditioners with water cooled condensers,
1. What is UPS
2. Why UPS 4.2.2Packaged air conditioners with air cooled condensers.
5. Operating Modes 4.3 Centralized systems (central Hydraulic systems),
3.1 Normal Mode 3.2 Backup Mode
4.3.1 Centralized duct “All air” systems,
3.3 Bypass Mode 3.4 Maintenance Mode 4.3.2 Centralized fluid based hydronic systems “all water systems”,
4. Types & Components of UPS 4.3.3 Combined (hybrid) water and air systems.
5. Battery & Static Switch 4.4 Special systems.

5. Electromechanical/Generator/
Contents
1. Why DC power
2. Definition of Electrical Terms
3. Power System Building Blocks
4. The Elements in a Power System
5. Battery Management

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Current Flow in a System –Normal Operation
• Mains Input OK.
• Load Supplied by the rectifier system.
• Batteries on float charge

AC RECTIFIER TELECOM
IN PUT SYSTEM EQUIPMENT

BATTERY
BANK

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Current Flow in a System –Mains Fail
• Mains Input Failed.
• Load Supplied by the battery.
• Batteries are discharging

AC RECTIFIER TELECOM
IN PUT SYSTEM EQUIPMENT

BATTERY
BANK

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Current flow in a system –Mains restored
• Mains input OK.
• Load supplied by the rectifier system
• Batteries are recharging

AC RECTIFIER TELECOM
IN PUT SYSTEM EQUIPMENT

BATTERY
BANK

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Rectifier Troubleshooting

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MAJOR CAUSES OF RECTIFIER FAILURES

1. NEGLECT

2. AGE

3. LIGHTNING

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TROUBLESHOOTING PRECAUTIONS

•Turn the RECTIFIER and the MAIN DISCONNECT OFF!

•Be careful when testing a rectifier which is in operation. Safety first
•Consult the rectifier wiring diagram before troubleshooting
•Correct polarity must be observed when using DC instruments
•Rectifier should be in the OFF position before using an OHMETER
•Common sense prevails

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TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURES
Most rectifier troubles are simple and do not require extensive
detailed
Troubleshooting procedures. The most common problems are:
•Faulty meters
•Loose terminals
•Blown Fuses
•Open ground red leads
•Lighting damage

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TROUBLESHOOTING MORE DIFFICULT
PROBLEMS
 It is usually better to systematically isolate the
rectifier components until the defective part is
found.

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SOME HELPFUL TROUBLESHOOTING TIPS TO FOLLO

1. No output voltage or current present.

A. Breaker Tripped (or Fuse Blown)
1. Steady overload, reduce output slightly.
2. Short circuit in some component.
B. No AC Line Voltage
C. Open Circuit
1. Check all connections
2. Check all diodes in silicon stacks
D. Defective meters or meter switches
2. If maximum DC output voltage at rated DC current is half output.
A. Check for proper AC input voltage.
B. Check stacks for plates open circuit, this would make unit operate as a half wave rectifier.
C. Badly aged stacks.
D. For 3Ø rectifiers, in addition to the above 1Ø rectifiers.
(1.) Open circuit if, one AC line is considerably less than the other two.
(2.) One of three stacks are more aged than the other two.
E. Low line voltage.

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TROUBLESHOOTING THE VARIABLE TRANSFORMER
• Troubleshooting the variable transformer will be the same as
the procedure for the main transformer.
A. AC input voltage should be checked across terminals one and
four.
B. Output AC voltage can be checked across terminals one and
three. (Control knob should be at maximum rotation).
C. Output voltage should be the same as Input voltage.
D. If no AC voltage is present on the output terminals of the
variable transformer, check for open winding, dirty or worn
wiper brush.

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Thank you !

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 Part II- Solar Photovoltaic System

1. Advantage & Disadvantage of Solar PV system

2. Primary Components of Solar PV system
2.1 PV array
2.2 Battery
2.3 Charge controller
3. Solar PV system sizing

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Advantages of Solar PV System

 It converts solar energy directly into electrical energy

without going through thermal-mechanical link. It has no
moving parts.
 Solar PV systems are reliable, modular, durable and
generally maintenance free.
 These systems are quite, compatible with almost all
environments, expected life span of 20 years or more.
 It can be located at the place of use and hence no
distribution network is required.

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Disadvantages of Solar PV System

 At present the cost of solar cells are high, making them

economically uncompetitive with other conventional
power sources.
 The efficiency of solar cells are low.
 Large no. of solar cells are required to generate power.
 As solar energy is intermittent, some kind of electrical
energy storage is required, which makes the whole
system more expensive.

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 Primary Components of Solar PV
system
 To power the telecom installations, such as repeater stations
located in remote areas, with a high level of solar radiation
levels year-round and where the cost to extend the power lines
is prohibitive photovoltaic (PV) technology is the most
economical option.
 A solar PV array, battery, and charge controller are the
three primary components of the PV system. The charge
controller regulates the output of the PV array and ensures
proper charging of the battery, thus protecting it from abuse. A
portable gen-set is required to power the telecom equipment in
case of no power output from the PV system.

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1. Array — A PV system starts at its simplest level with a cell that is
arranged into a group to form a module. A solar module typically
consists of 36 cells and provides a nominal voltage of 12V. Many
modules are connected to one another to form a panel (sub-array). The
sub-arrays are then installed and wired to each other to form the array
for the required voltage and current output.
2. Batteries— For off-grid, stand-alone solar power systems, batteries
provide the backup power needed when sunlight is insufficient, such as
during periods of heavy cloud cover and during the night. The battery
bank should have sufficient ampere-hour (Ah) capacity to supply load
during the longest expected period with no contribution from the PV
array — it has to be a full-size battery bank with a good reserve for five
or more days (120 hrs). The batteries must be suitable to withstand the
heavy daily cycling required for this application. One cycle is defined
as a full charge followed by discharge. It is usually considered to be
discharging from 100% to 20%, which means a “depth of discharge” of
80%.

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3. Charge controller/regulator

 Output from the solar modules varies considerably, depending on the

prevailing sunlight and temperature conditions. Therefore, it's required to
regulate its output by wiring it to the charge controller before it goes on
to the battery bank and loads. Once the batteries are fully charged, the
charge controller doesn't let current from the PV modules flow into them.
Similarly, once the batteries have been drained to a certain predetermined
level, the charge controller will not allow more current to be drained
from the batteries until they have been recharged.
 The charge controller also eliminates any reverse current flow from the
battery back to the solar modules at night.
 The controller is also built with alarm features to indicate abnormal
conditions (e.g., array failure, battery low-/high-voltage, circuit breaker
trip, equipment overload, module anti-theft alarm, etc.)

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Fig. A typical set of I-P curve of a module

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Solar PV system sizing
1. Determine power consumption demands
The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power
and energy consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar
PV system as follows:
1.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total
Watt-hours per day which must be delivered to the appliances.
1.2 Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the energy lost
in the system) to get the total Watt-hours per day which must be provided
by the panels.

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2. Size the PV modules
 Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To find out
the sizing of PV module, the total peak watt produced needs. The peak watt (Wp)
produced depends on size of the PV module and climate of site location. We have to
consider “panel generation factor” which is different in each site location. To
determine the sizing of PV modules, calculate as follows:
2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules
 Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules (from item 1.2)
by 3.43 to get the total Watt-peak rating needed for the PV panels needed to operate
the appliances.
2.2 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system
 Divide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV
modules available to you. Increase any fractional part of result to the next highest
full number and that will be the number of PV modules required.
Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV modules are
installed, the system will perform better and battery life will be improved. If fewer PV
modules are used, the system may not work at all during cloudy periods and battery life
will be shortened.

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 3. Inverter sizing
 An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The
input rating of the inverter should never be lower than the total watt of
appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your
battery.
 For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the
total amount of Watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size
should be 25-30% bigger than total Watts of appliances. In case of
appliance type is motor or compressor then inverter size should be
minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the
inverter capacity to handle surge current during starting.
 For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the
inverter should be same as PV array rating to allow for safe and efficient
operation.

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4. Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle
battery. Deep cycle battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to low
energy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged and discharged day after day
for years. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy to
operate the appliances at night and cloudy days. To find out the size of battery,
calculate as follows:
4.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.
4.2 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
4.3 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
4.4 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominal battery voltage.
4.5 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days of autonomy (the
number of days that you need the system to operate when there is no power
produced by PV panels) to get the required Ampere-hour capacity of deep-
cycle battery.
Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x
Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)
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5. Solar charge controller sizing
 The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage
capacities. Select the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV
array and batteries and then identify which type of solar charge controller is
right for your application. Make sure that solar charge controller has
enough capacity to handle the current from PV array.
 For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the
total PV input current which is delivered to the controller and also depends
on PV panel configuration (series or parallel configuration).
 According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to
take the short circuit current (Isc) of the PV array/modules/, and multiply it
by 1.3
 Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV
array/modules/x 1.3

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 Part III- Uninterruptible Power
Supply ( UPS)
1. What is UPS
2. Why UPS
3. Operating Modes
3.1 Normal Mode
3.2 Backup Mode
3.3 Bypass Mode
3.4 Maintenance Mode
4. Types & Components of UPS
5. Battery & Static Switch

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What is UPS
 UPS maintains a continuous supply of electric power to connected
equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility
power is not available.
 It differs from an auxiliary power supply or standby generator, which
does not provide instant protection from a momentary power
interruption.

Why UPS
 Standby generator powers critical loads & UPS in case of power
failure. UPS powers control system during generator starting so that
there is no interruption during power failure.
 Incase of generator failure, UPS is used to bring the equipment
process to safe shutdown.
 It mainly turns off the critical valves.

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 Main Power Problems & Types of UPS
 Over-voltage
 Under-voltage
 Voltage spike
 Voltage sag
 Frequency variation
 Switching transient
 Line noise
 Harmonic distortion

Types:
1. OFFLINE
2. LINE INTERACTIVE
3. ONLINE

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 Battery
 Storage batteries are the energy sources of UPS systems during a
power outage. UPS system demand a high discharge rate for
relatively good regulation of output voltage. UPS storage batteries
are made up of a string of series connected –connected cells to
achieve the voltage in the range between 48-400V.
 The two major categories of storage batteries used in UPS are
nickel cadmium(NiCd) & lead acid. The lead acid is one of the most
inexpensive, most reliable, and most widely used. The NiCd
batteries have a much greater cycle life than the lead acid type, but
the cost about 4-6 times greater.
 For a given battery capacity, a NiCd battery is smaller & lighter than
a comparable led acid battery.

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 Static Transfer Switch
 UPS can maintain supply to load either from the UPS inverter output
or from the mains (bypass) supply.
 The static switch of an online UPS has two operational states, ’on
UPS’ (the normal condition) and ‘on Bypass’.
 In both cases it provides a very fast transfer between the inverter
output and the bypass. The decision is made by the static switch’s
own and/or the UPS control logic which continually monitors the
bypass (mains) and inverter voltages. The control logic typically
controls the phase & frequency of the UPS inverter (s) to ensure that
the bypass & inverter voltages are in phase (synchronized) with
each other. Bi directional, break free transfer between the two
supply sources is only possible when the bypass & the inverter are
‘synchronized’.

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 Static Transfer Switch
 During normal operation, with the inverter supplying the load, SCRs
3 & 4 are triggered and SCRs 1&2 are not triggered.
 In the event of an inverter supply problem, the static switch
monitoring circuitry would identify it and decide to transfer load. It
stops triggering SCRs 3 &4 and starts triggering SCRs 1 & 2.
 Once an SCR is triggered it continues to conduct until the voltage
across it is zero. By triggering SCRs 1&2 while SCRs 3&4 are still
conducting, the bypass & inverter are paralleled for a short time.
Such short time paralleling ensures a break-free transfer between
the two supplies and it is for this reason that the two supplies must
be synchronized before the transfer can take place.
 If transfer was allowed, regardless of the synchronization status of
the two supplies then the load would almost certainly be subjected
to a power disturbance.

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 Part –IV Air conditioning System

1. What is air-conditioning system

2. Refrigerant
3. The Refrigeration/Cooling Cycle
2.1 Evaporation
2.2 Compression
2.3 Condensation
2.4 Expansion

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 An air conditioner is an appliance, system or
mechanism designed to extract heat from an area of
refrigeration cycle. Air conditioners come in various
sized cooling capacity and prices.
 Refrigerants:
All air conditioners contain a volume of fluid known as
refrigerant. refrigerant is the substance used to actually
transport heat from the equipment environment to
outside environment. Older system use refrigerant
designated R-12. Today the most commonly used
refrigerant is R410A, R-407C , R-22 and R-134a.

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The refrigeration cycle:
The actual movement of heat energy from
communication equipment is achieved by use of
refrigeration cycle. The refrigeration cycle of
evaporation, pressure change, condensation and
flow regulation applied to a fluid called a
refrigerant.

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Evaporation:
 Evaporation is the first step in removing heat fro
communication equipment room.
 Warm air from equipment is blown across the
evaporator coil by fans while the pipe comprising the
coil is supplied with cold liquid refrigerant. When the
warm room air passes through the cold evaporator
coil it is cooled and this cool air is delivered to the
room.
 It is the heat from the room that is boiling the
refrigerant from liquid to gaseous state.

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Compression:
The compression has two important functions:
1. It pushes the refrigerant carrying the heat energy
around the refrigeration loop.
2. It compresses the gaseous refrigerant from the
evaporator to over 200 psi or 1379 kpa. The
compressor of gas causes the temperature to rise.
Therefore, the moving gaseous refrigerant existing the
compressor is hot as well as compressed. The
temperature rise due to compression is the key to the
ability of the refrigeration loop to eject in to the out
door environment

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Condensation:
 The hot compressed refrigerant carries the room heat
energy from the compressor to the condenser coil like
evaporator coil.
 This coil transfer heat to another medium, like air.
The condenser coil operates at a temperature higher
than the air.
 The air is typically blown across the coil by a fan
while exhaust the hot air to the outdoor.

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Expansion:
 The refrigerant exists the condenser coil as a- high
presser liquid, although at low temperature. Then
passes through an expansion value before returning to
the evaporator coil.
 This value has two key functions that are critical to
the refrigeration cycle.
1. It precisely regulates the flow of high-pressure
refrigerant in to the lower pressure evaporator coil
at a rate that maintains an optimal difference in
pressure.

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2. The high-pressure refrigerant is expanded as gas as it
escapes the expansion value. It is fundamental
property of gases that the expansion of a gas causes
its temperature to fall.
 The result is that the refrigerant is cooled by the
release to blow the room temperature, re-enter the
Evaporator coil in this way the refrigeration cycle is
repeated.

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4- Air-Conditioning Systems Types

As we explained before in our course HVAC-1: An introduction to heating, ventilation

and air conditioning (HVAC) systems that the HVAC system can be divided to (2) main
systems:

1,Heating systems
2,Cooling systems.

Here, we are interested in the cooling systems or what we will called “ Air
Conditioning systems” in this course, which in turn divided to (4) sub-main systems:

4.1 De-centralized systems (individual room systems)

4.2 Semi-centralized systems (packaged systems),
4.3 Centralized systems (central Hydraulic systems),
4.4 Special systems.

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4.1 De-Centralized Systems (Individual Room
Systems)

These systems include:

Window air conditioning units,

Split air conditioning units,
Mini-heat pumps.

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 Window air conditioning units

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Split air conditioning units
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Mini-heat pumps
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1.2 Semi-Centralized Systems (Packaged Systems)

These systems include:

A- Unitary packaged systems (one pipe systems) which can be

divided to:

Packaged air conditioners with water cooled condensers,

Packaged air conditioners with air cooled condensers.

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Packaged air conditioners with water cooled condensers

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Roof Top Packaged air conditioners with air cooled condensers

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 4.3. Centralized Systems (Central Hydronic Systems)

These systems include:

4.3.1 Centralized duct “All air” systems,

4.3.2 Centralized fluid based hydronic systems “all water systems”,
4.3.3 Combined (hybrid) water and air systems.

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Centralized duct “All air” systems Concept
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THANKS!

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AC Generation

ALTERNATING CURRENT
GENERATORS

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Describe the principle of magnetic induction as it applies to ac
generators.
2. Describe the differences between the two basic types of ac
generators.
3. List the advantages and disadvantages of the two types of ac
generators.
4. Describe exciter generators within alternators; discuss
construction and purpose.
5. Compare the types of rotors used in ac generators, and the
applications of each type to different prime movers.

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6. Explain the factors that determine the maximum power output
of an ac generator, and the effect of these factors in rating
generators.
7. Explain the operation of multiphase ac generators and
compare with single-phase.
8. Describe the relationships between the individual output and
resultant vectorial sum voltages in multiphase generators.
9. Explain, using diagrams, the different methods of connecting
three-phase alternators and transformers.
10. List the factors that determine the frequency and voltage of
the alternator output.
11. Explain the terms voltage control and voltage regulation in ac
generators, and list the factors that affect each quantity.

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BASIC AC GENERATORS

Regardless of size, all electrical generators, whether dc or ac, depend upon

the principle of magnetic induction. An emf is induced in a coil as a result of
(1) a coil cutting through a magnetic field, or
(2) a magnetic field cutting through a coil. As long as there is relative motion
between a conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage will be induced in the
conductor. That part of a generator that produces the magnetic field is called
the field. That part in which the voltage is induced is called the armature. For
relative motion to take place between the conductor and the magnetic field, all
generators must have two mechanical parts a rotor and a stator.

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ROTATING-ARMATURE ALTERNATORS

The Rotor is the part that Rotates; the Stator is the part that
remains Stationary. Magnetic induction occurs when there is
relative motion between what two elements. In the dc
generator, the emf generated in the armature windings is
converted from ac to dc by means of the commutator. In the
alternator, the generated ac is brought to the load unchanged
by means of slip rings.

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Or

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ROTATING-FIELD ALTERNATORS

The rotating-field alternator has a stationary armature winding and a

rotating-field winding as shown in figure 3-1, view B The advantage of
having a stationary armature winding is that the generated voltage can
be connected directly to the load. A rotating armature requires slip rings
and brushes to conduct the current from the armature to the load. The
armature, brushes, and slip rings are difficult to insulate, and arc overs
and short circuits can result at high voltages. For this reason, high-
voltage alternators are usually of the rotating-field type. Since the
voltage applied to the rotating field is low voltage dc, the problem of
high voltage arc-over at the slip rings does not exist.

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The stationary armature, or stator, of this type of alternator holds the
windings that are cut by the rotating magnetic field. The voltage
generated in the armature as a result of this cutting action is the ac
power that will be applied to the load.

Figure 3-2.—Stationary armature windings.

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What is the part of an alternator in which the output voltage is generated?

What are the two basic types of alternators?

What is the main advantage of the rotating field alternator?

PRACTICAL ALTERNATORS

The alternators described so far in this chapter are ELEMENTARY in

nature; they are seldom used except as examples to aid in understanding
practical alternators.
The remainder of this chapter will relate the principles of the elementary
alternator to the alternators actually in use in the civilian community. The
following paragraphs in this chapter will introduce such concepts as
prime movers, field excitation, armature characteristics and limitations,
single-phase and polyphase alternators, controls and regulation.

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FUNCTIONS OF ALTERNATOR COMPONENTS

A typical rotating-field ac generator consists of an alternator and a

smaller dc generator built into a single unit. The output of the
alternator section supplies alternating voltage to the load. The only
purpose
for the dc exciter generator is to supply the direct current required
to maintain the alternator field. This dc generator is referred to as
the exciter. A typical alternator is shown in figure 3-3, view A; figure
3-3, view

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Figure 3-3.—Ac generator pictorial and
schematic drawings.
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The exciter is a dc, shunt-wound, self-excited generator. The exciter shunt
field (2) creates an area of intense magnetic flux between its poles. When
the exciter armature (3) is rotated in the exciter-field flux, voltage is
induced in the exciter armature windings. The output from the exciter
commutator (4) is connected through brushes and slip rings (5) to the
alternator field. Since this is direct current already converted by the exciter
commutator, the current always flows in one direction through the
alternator field (6). Thus, a fixed-polarity magnetic field is maintained at all
times in the alternator field windings. When the alternator field is rotated,
its magnetic flux is passed through and across the alternator armature
windings (7). Remember, a voltage is induced in a conductor if it is
stationary and a magnetic field is passed across the conductor, the same
as if the field is stationary and the conductor is moved. The alternating
voltage in the ac generator armature windings is connected through fixed
terminals to the ac load.

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PRIME MOVERS
All generators, large and small, ac and dc, require a source
of mechanical power to turn their rotors.
This source of mechanical energy is called a prime mover.

ALTERNATOR ROTORS
There are two types of rotors used in rotating-field
alternators. They are called the turbine-driven and salient-
pole rotors.
As you may have guessed, the turbine-driven rotor shown
in figure 3-4, view A, is used when the prime mover is a
high-speed turbine. The windings in the turbine-driven rotor
are arranged to form two or four distinct poles. The
windings are firmly embedded in slots to withstand the
tremendous centrifugal forces encountered at high speeds

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Figure 3-4.—Types of rotors used in
alternators.

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The salient-pole rotor shown in figure 3-4, view B, is used in low-
speed alternators. The salient-pole rotor often consists of several
separately wound pole pieces, bolted to the frame of the rotor.
If you could compare the physical size of the two types of rotors
with the same electrical characteristics, you would see that the
salient-pole rotor would have a greater diameter. At the same
number of revolutions per minute, it has a greater centrifugal
force than does the turbine-driven rotor. To reduce this force to a
safe level so that the windings will not be thrown out of the
machine, the salient pole is used only in low-speed designs.

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LTERNATOR CHARACTERISTICS AND LIMITATIONS

Alternators are rated according to the voltage they are designed to produce
and the maximum current they are capable of providing. The maximum
current that can be supplied by an alternator depends upon the maximum
heating loss that can be sustained in the armature. This heating loss (which is
an I2R power loss) acts to heat the conductors, and if excessive, destroys the
insulation. Thus, alternators are rated in terms of this current and in terms of
the voltage output — the alternator rating in small units is in volt-amperes; in
large units it is kilovolt-amperes.
When an alternator leaves the factory, it is already destined to do a very
specific job. The speed at which it is designed to rotate, the voltage it will
produce, the current limits, and other operating characteristics are built in.
This information is usually stamped on a nameplate on the case so that the
user will know the limitations.
How are alternators usually rated?
What type of prime mover requires a specially designed high-speed
alternator?
Salient-pole rotors may be used in alternators driven by what types of prime
movers?

Power & Environment

SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATORS

A generator that produces a single, continuously

alternating voltage is known as a SINGLE-PHASE
alternator. All of the alternators that have been discussed
so far fit this definition. The stator (armature) windings are
connected in series. The individual voltages, therefore,
add to produce a single-phase ac voltage. Figure 3-5
shows a basic alternator with its single-phase output
voltage.

Figure 3-5.—Single-phase alternator.

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TWO-PHASE ALTERNATORS

Two phase implies two voltages if we apply our new definition

of phase. And, it’s that simple. A two-phase alternator is
designed to produce two completely separate voltages. Each
voltage, by itself,
may be considered as a single-phase voltage.

Generation of Two-Phase Power

Figure 3-6 shows a simplified two-pole, two-phase alternator.

Note that the windings of the two phases are physically at right
angles (90º) to each other. You would expect the outputs of
each phase to
be 90º apart, which they are. The graph shows the two phases
to be 90º apart, with A leading B. Note that by using our
original definition of phase (from previous modules), we could
say that A and B are 90º
out of phase. There will always be 90º between the phases of
a two-phase alternator. This is by design.

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Figure 3-6.—Two-phase alternator.

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THREE-PHASE ALTERNATOR

The three-phase alternator, as the name implies, has three single-

phase windings spaced such that the voltage induced in any one
phase is displaced by 120º from the other two. A schematic diagram
of a three-phase stator showing all the coils becomes complex, and
it is difficult to see what is actually happening. The simplified
schematic of figure 3-8, view A, shows all the windings of each
phase lumped together as one winding. The rotor is omitted for
simplicity. The voltage waveforms generated across each phase are
drawn on a graph, phase-displaced 120º from each other. The
three-phase alternator as shown in this schematic is made up of
three single-phase alternators whose generated voltages are out of
phase by 120º . The three phases are independent of each other.

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Figure 3-8.—Three-phase alternator
connections.
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Rather than having six leads coming out of the three-phase
alternator, the same leads from each phase may be connected
together to form a wye (Y) connection, as shown in figure 3-8, view
B. It is called a wye connection because, without the neutral, the
windings appear as the letter Y, in this case sideways or upside
down.
The neutral connection is brought out to a terminal when a single-
phase load must be supplied.
Single-phase voltage is available from neutral to A, neutral to B,
and neutral to C. In a three-phase, Y-connected alternator, the total
voltage, or line voltage, across any two of the three line leads is the
vector sum of the individual phase voltages. Each line voltage is
1.73 times one of the phase voltages. Because the windings form
only one path for current flow between phases, the line and phase
currents are the same (equal).

Power & Environment

A three-phase stator can also be connected so that the phases are connected
end-to-end; it is now delta connected (fig. 3-8, view C). (Delta because it looks
like the Greek letter delta, D.) In the delta connection, line voltages are equal
to phase voltages, but each line current is equal to 1.73 times the phase
current. Both the wye and the delta connections are used in alternators.
The majority of all alternators in use in the Navy today are three-phase
machines. They are much more efficient than either two-phase or single-phase
alternators.
FREQUENCY
The output frequency of alternator voltage depends upon the speed of rotation
of the rotor and the number of poles. The faster the speed, the higher the
frequency. The lower the speed, the lower the frequency. The more poles there
are on the rotor, the higher the frequency is for a given speed. When a rotor
has rotated through an angle such that two adjacent rotor poles (a north and a
south pole) have passed one winding, the voltage induced in that winding will
have varied through one complete cycle. For a given frequency, the more pairs
of poles there are, the lower the speed of rotation. The frequency of any ac
generator in hertz (Hz), which is the number of cycles per second, is related to
the number of poles and the speed of rotation, as expressed by the equation

Power & Environment

 F=NP
120
where P is the number of poles, N is the speed of
rotation in revolutions per minute (rpm), and 120 is a
constant to allow for the conversion of minutes to
seconds and from poles to pairs of poles. For example,
a 2-pole, 3600-rpm alternator has a frequency of 60 Hz;
determined as follows:
2x3600 =60Hz
120
A 4-pole, 1800-rpm generator also has a frequency of
60 Hz. A 6-pole, 500-rpm generator has afrequency of
6x500 =25Hz
120
A 12-pole, 4000-rpm generator has a frequency of

12x400=400Hz
120

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What two factors determine the frequency of the output voltage of an alternator?
The output frequency of alternator voltage depends upon the speed of rotation of the rotor and the number of poles. The faster the
speed, the higher the frequency. The lower the speed, the lower the frequency. The more poles there are on the rotor, the higher the
frequency is for a given speed.
What is the frequency of the output voltage of an alternator with four poles that is
rotated at 3600 rpm? F= ps where , p---pole

120 s-----speed
120---constant
VOLTAGE REGULATION
As we have seen before, when the load on a generator is changed, the terminal
voltage varies. The amount of variation depends on the design of the generator.
The voltage regulation of an alternator is the change of voltage from full load to
no load, expressed as a percentage of full-load volts, when the speed and dc field
current are held constant.
Enl-Efl x100=Percent of regulation
Efl
Assume the no-load voltage of an alternator is 250 volts and the full-load voltage
is 220 volts. The
percent of regulation is
250-220 x 100 = 13.6%
220

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Remember, the lower the percent of regulation, the better it is in
most applications.
The variation in output voltage as the load changes is referred to
as what? How is it expressed?
Load regulation of a constant-voltage source is defined by the
equation: %Load Regulation= Vmin-load—Vmax –load
Vnom-load
Where:
is the voltage at maximum load. The maximum load is the one that
draws the greatest current, i.e., the lowest specified load
resistance (never short circuit); is the voltage at minimum load.
The minimum load is the one that draws the least current, i.e. the
highest specified load resistance (possibly open circuit for some
types of linear supplies, usually limited by pass transistor
minimum bias levels);
is the voltage at the typical specified load.

Power & Environment

 Causes and Troubleshooting for Engine Stopping Automatically

CAUSES TROUBLESHOOTING
 Malfunction of the fuel system Fill fuel.
 Obstruction in fuel pip or air filter Check or clean.
 Air exists in fuel system Emit the air.
 Nozzle needle was bitted Clean, skive the nozzle or change it if necessary.
 Obstruction in air filter Check, clean or brush off, or change the filter element
 Sudden increase of load Lighten the load.

Causes and Troubleshooting for Exhaust with Black Smoke

CAUSES TROUBLESHOOTING
 Overload Lighten the load; change the matched machine if it does not comply with the requirements.

 Bad spray Check injection pressure and spray condition and remedy; change the nozzle if it was damaged.

 Lack of air or leakage Clean the air filter; check the cause of leakage and remedy.
 Causes and Troubleshooting for Exhaust with Blue Smoke
CAUSES TROUBLESHOOTING
 Machine oil mixed in cylinder Check the oil level, drain off the redundant engine oil
 Piston ring is clipped, worn or lack of
• elasticity, hatch of each ring turned to the Check and replace the piston ring, and cross hatch of each ring
same direction and make engine oil up
 Big gap between piston and cylinder Remedy or change
 Wear and tear of valve and guide Change

Causes and Troubleshooting for Exhaust with White Smoke

CAUSES TROUBLESHOOTING
 Water mixed in diesel fuel Clean the fuel tank and filter and change the diesel fuel.

Checking Methods when the Engine Encounters Malfunction

CAUSES
 Speed sometimes fast, sometimes slow
in oil pipeline.
 Abnormal noise suddenly sent out
 Exhaust with black suddenly
 Rhythmically metal knocking sound in the
Cylinder
TROUBLESHOOTING
Check if the speed governing system is flexible, and if air mixed
Stop the engine and inspect each movable parts carefully
Check fuel system, especially the nozzle.
The fuel delivery angle is too big, should adjust the angle.
 Causes and troubleshooting for the generator not being started
CAUSES TROUBLESHOOTING
 Lack of diesel fuel Add diesel fuel
 Oil switch is not on the position of “ON” Turn oil switch handle to the position of “ON”
(start switch)
 No or little spray from injection pump and Disassemble the nozzle and adjust it on the test table
nozzle
 The governor handle is not on the position of Turn the governor handle to the position of “RUN”
“RUN”
 Check the lubricating oil level The standard of lubricating oil is between upper line “H” and
bottom line “L”
 Recoil starter is not swift and powerful enough Start the engine according to “ Start Operation Procedure”
 Dirty in the nozzle Clean the nozzle
 No electricity of storage battery Charge up or change the storage battery
 Causes and troubleshooting for the generator not generating electricity

CAUSE TROUBLESHOOTING
 Power switch is on the position of “OFF” Turn the switch handle to the position of “ON”
 Bad contact of the socket Adjust the socket pins
 Damage of capacitor Change the capacitor