TECHNIQUES OF DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS:

Superposition Principle
Source Transformation
Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
Maximum Power Transfer

SKEE 1023

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• Applies only for LINEAR CIRCUIT

Circuit containing only linear

circuit elements

A LINEAR relationship
between voltage and
current

What do we mean by a linear relationship?

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When the relationship fulfilled 2 properties:

• Homogeneity (scaling)

f(x) = y  f(kx) = ky = kf(x)

• Additivity

f(x) = y  f(x1 + x2) = f(x1) + f(x2) = y1 + y2

What do we mean by a linear relationship?

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Superposition Principle: The voltage across an element ( or the
current through an element) of a linear circuit containing more than
one independent source, is the algebraic sum the voltage across
that element (or the current through that element) due to each
independent source acting alone.

All other independent sources are deactivated

• voltage sources are shorted
• current sources are opened

Note that dependent sources CANNOT be deactivated !

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Superposition Principle: The voltage across an element ( or the
current through an element) of a linear circuit containing more than
one independent source, is the algebraic sum the voltage across
that element (or the current through that element) due to each
independent source acting alone.

5
Superposition Principle: The voltage across an element ( or the
current through an element) of a linear circuit containing more than
one independent source, is the algebraic sum the voltage across
that element (or the current through that element) due to each
independent source acting alone.

• may involve MORE work

• cannot be applied to power calculation – find i or v first

(using superposition) before calculating power !

• most suitably used when involved with sources of different

properties or types, e.g. different frequencies, mixture of
DC and AC, etc.

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 Source Transformation: A tool used to simplify circuit; a process of
replacing a voltage source in series with a resistor by a current source
in parallel with a resistor or vice versa

R
a a

is R
vs +


b b

Terminal a-b sees: For this circuit to be equivalent, it

Open circuit voltage: vs must have the same terminal
Short circuit current: vs/R charateristics
 Source Transformation: A tool used to simplify circuit; a process of
replacing a voltage source in series with a resistor by a current source
in parallel with a resistor or vice versa

is R

Terminal a-b sees:

Open circuit voltage: isR
Short circuit current: is
 Source Transformation: A tool used to simplify circuit; a process of
replacing a voltage source in series with a resistor by a current source
in parallel with a resistor or vice versa

a R
a

is R
vs +


b
b

Terminal a-b sees: Terminal a-b sees:

Open circuit voltage: isR Open circuit voltage: vs
Short circuit current: is Short circuit current: vs/R
 Source Transformation: A tool used to simplify circuit; a process of
replacing a voltage source in series with a resistor by a current source
in parallel with a resistor or vice versa

a R
a

is R
vs +


b
b

For both to be equivalent, isR = vs or is = vs/R

 Source Transformation: A tool used to simplify circuit; a process of
replacing a voltage source in series with a resistor by a current source
in parallel with a resistor or vice versa

a R
a
iy
is R
vs +
ix 

b
b

Note: current through R (hence power) for both circuits is not the same

i.e. ix  iy
Example 1
Find vo in the circuit shown below using source transformation
Example 1
Example 2

Find io in the circuit shown below using source transformation

 Thevenin’s
In 1883, M.L. Theorem : A linear
Thevenin two-terminal
proposed circuit can be
a theorem …….
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

I
+
Linear two-
terminal V Load
circuit


RTh I
VTh= ?
+

VTh V Load
 RTh= ?

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Thevenin’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine VTh

RTh

VTh Load

=
Linear two-
terminal
circuit Load

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Thevenin’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine VTh

RTh
+
VTh Loadvoltage = Voc
open circuit = VTh


Linear two-
terminal
circuit Load

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Thevenin’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine VTh

RTh
+
VTh open circuit voltage = Voc = VTh


Linear two-
terminal +
circuit Load
open circuit voltage = Voc

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Thevenin’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine VTh

RTh
+
VTh open circuit voltage = Voc = VTh

VTh = Voc = Open circuit voltage

Linear two-
terminal +
circuit = VTh voltage
(Since =the
open circuit Voccircuit is equivalent)

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Thevenin’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine RTh - Method 1

RTh isc
a
VTh

b Short circuit current, isc = Vth

R th

VTh
R Th 
isc i sc

Linear two- a
terminal
circuit

b

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 Thevenin’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine RTh – Method 2

Pre-requisite: circuit with NO dependent sources

Deactivate all the independent sources

Linear
circuit –
independen
t sources
killed
Rin = RTh Rin = RTh

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Thevenin’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistor

To determine RTh – Method 3

Deactivate all the independent sources - dependent

sources stay as they are

io
Linear
Circuit –
ONLY +
dependent
vo
-
sources
killed RTh is calculated as:

vo
• Introduce a voltage (or current) source.
R Th 
io

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 Norton’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
43byyears later, E.L. Norton proposed a similar theorem. ….
an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor

I
+
Linear two-
terminal V Load
circuit


I IN= ?
+
IN RN
V Load


RN= ?
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Norton’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor

To determine IN

IN IN
RN

Linear
circuit

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Norton’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor

To determine IN

IN IN= Short circuit current

RN

Linear
Short circuit current = IN
circuit

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Norton’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor

To determine IN

IN IN= Short circuit current

RN

IN = Isc = Short circuit current

Linear
Short circuit current = IN
circuit

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Norton’s Theorem: A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with
a resistor

To determine RN

SIMILAR METHOD AS HOW TO OBTAIN RTh

RN = RTh

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 Relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s equivalents

a
IN
RN

Linear two- a
terminal
circuit OR

a
VTh RTh

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Relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s equivalents

a
+ IN
v oc  INR N RN

b

Since both circuits are equivalent,

VTh vocvmust
VTh  INR N  Rbe N  R
the same
Th   oc
IN isc

a
+
VTh RTh
v oc  VTh

b

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 Maximum Power Transfer

RL What would be the value of RL for

Linear circuit
power delivered to it become
MAXIMUM?

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 Maximum Power Transfer

RTh

VTh RL What would be the value of RL for

Linear circuit
power delivered to it become
MAXIMUM?

2
  RL  
 VTh   
 2
  R Th  R L    VTh 
PL     R L
RL  R Th  R L 

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 Maximum Power Transfer

2.4
Maximum power
2.2
p
Rl=linspace(1,60,500); 2

Vth=10; 1.8
Rth=12; 1.6
p=((Vth./(Rl+Rth)).^2).*Rl;
2
  R L 1.4
plot(Rl,p,'r');  VTh  1.2
  2
grid;   R Th  R L  1  VTh 
PL     R L
RL  R Th  R L 
0.8

0.6

0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

RL = 12  32
RL
 Maximum Power Transfer
2
  RL  
 VTh  
 
 R  R   VTh 
2
  Th L 
PL     R L
RL  R Th  R L 

dPL
Mathematically, we evaluate RL when 0
dR L

dPL  2VTh2 VTh2

 RL  0
dR L (R Th  R L ) 3
(R Th  R L ) 2

dPL VTh2  2R L  R Th  R L   R L  R Th
 0
dR L (R Th  R L ) 3

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Using PSpice to verify Norton’s and Thevenin’s Theorems

Find Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b

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Using PSpice to verify Norton’s and Thevenin’s Theorems

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Using PSpice to verify Norton’s and Thevenin’s Theorems

E2

+
-
+
E

-
R9 R8

2 2

I3
R6 R7
1Aac
TRAN = 4 6
0

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Using PSpice to verify Norton’s and Thevenin’s Theorems

E2

+
-
+
E

-
R9 R8

2 2

I3
R6 R7
1Aac
TRAN = 4 6
0

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Using PSpice to verify Norton’s and Thevenin’s Theorems

E2

+
-
+
E

-
R9 R8

2 2

I3 I4
R6 R7
1Aac 1Aac
TRAN = 4 6 TRAN =
0 1

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Using PSpice to verify Norton’s and Thevenin’s Theorems

1.333V
E2
RTh = 6/1 = 6

+
-
+
-
E

4.000V

R9 R8

6.000V
2 2

I3 I4
R6 R7
1Aac 1Aac
TRAN = 4 6 TRAN =
0 1

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Using PSpice to verify Norton’s and Thevenin’s Theorems

6.667V
E2
VTh = 20V

+
-
+
-
E

20.00V

R9 R8

20.00V
2 2

I3 I4
R6 R7
1Aac 1Aac
TRAN = 4 6 TRAN =
5 0

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