Motivation Concepts

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 What Is Motivation?
The processes that accounts for
an individual’s intensity, direction,
and persistence of effort toward
attaining a organizational goal
 Intensity – the amount of effort
put forth to meet the goal
 Direction – efforts are channeled
toward organizational goals
 Persistence – how long the effort
is maintained

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 Early Theories of Motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory
• McGregor’s Theory X and
Theory Y
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor
(Motivation-Hygiene) Theory
• McClellan’s Theory of Needs
(Three Needs Theory)

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 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of five needs—physiological,
safety, social, esteem, and self actualization—in which, as
each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes
dominant.
1. Physiological. Includes hunger, thirst, shelter and other
bodily needs.

2. Safety. Security and protection from physical and

emotional harm.

3. Social. Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and

friendship.
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 4. Esteem. Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy,
and achievement, and external factors such as status,
recognition, and attention.

5. Self-actualization. Drive to become what we are

capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving our
potential, and self-fulfillment.

Although no need is ever fully gratified, a substantially

satisfied need no longer motivates. Thus as each becomes
substantially satisfied, the next one becomes dominant

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 Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower
orders.
•lower-order needs Needs that are satisfied externally,
such as physiological and safety needs.

•Higher-order needs Needs that are satisfied internally,

such as social, esteem, self actualization.

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 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory

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 Douglas McGregor’s X & Y

Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human

beings:

one basically
negative, labeled Theory X, and the other basically
positive, labeled Theory Y.

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 Douglas McGregor’s X & Y

• Employees Inherently • View work as being as

dislike for work and will natural as rest or play
attempt to avoid it • can learn to accept, and
• Must be coerced, even seek, responsibility
controlled or threatened • Higher order needs
with punishment dominated

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 Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
• Two-factor theory A theory that relates intrinsic
factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic
factors with dissatisfaction. Also called motivation
hygiene theory and dual factor theory.
• intrinsic factors such as advancement,
recognition, responsibility, and achievement seem
related to job satisfaction.
• extrinsic factors such as supervision, pay,
company policies, and working conditions

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 Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
• To Hertzberg, the data suggest that the opposite
of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, as was
traditionally believed.
• Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job
does not necessarily make the job satisfying.
• Herzberg proposed a dual continuum: The
opposite of “satisfaction” is “no satisfaction,” and
the opposite of “dissatisfaction” is “no
dissatisfaction.”

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 Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
• Hygiene factors Factors—such as company
policy and administration, supervision, and salary
—that, when adequate in a job, placate workers.
When these factors are adequate, people will not
be dissatisfied.
• Motivators that give positive satisfaction, arising
from intrinsic conditions i.e promotional
opportunities, personal growth opportunities,
recognition, responsibility, and achievement.

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 Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
Not Dissatisfied Satisfied

Motivation
Motivation Factors
•• Quality
Quality of
of •• Promotional
Promotional
supervision
supervision opportunities
opportunities
•• Pay
Pay •• Opportunities
Opportunities for
for
•• Company
Company policies
policies personal growth
personal growth
•• Physical
Physical working
working
•• Recognition
Recognition

Factors
conditions
conditions
•• Relationships
Relationships •• Responsibility
Responsibility
•• Job
Job security
security •• Achievement
Achievement

Dissatisfied Not Satisfied

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 Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
According to the Two-Factor Theory there are four
possible combinations:[8]

•High Hygiene + High Motivation: The ideal

situation where employees are highly motivated
and have few complaints.
•High Hygiene + Low Motivation: Employees have
few complaints but are not highly motivated. The
job is viewed as a paycheck.

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 Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory

•Low Hygiene + High Motivation: Employees are

motivated but have a lot of complaints. A situation
where the job is exciting and challenging but
salaries and work conditions are not up to par.

•Low Hygiene + Low Motivation: This is the worst

situation where employees are not motivated and
have many complaints.

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 McClelland's Theory of Needs

A theory that states achievement, power,

and affiliation are three important needs
that help explain motivation.

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 McClelland's Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel, to achieve in relationship
to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed .

Need for Power (nPow)

The need to make others behave in a way
they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships
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 McClelland's High Achievers
• High achievers prefer jobs with:
 Personal responsibility
 Feedback
 Intermediate degree of risk (50/50)
 More motivated

• High achievers are not

necessarily good managers
• High nPow and low nAff is
related to managerial success.
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 Contemporary Theories of
Motivation

• Reinforcement Theory
• Equity Theory
• Expectancy Theory

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 Reinforcement Theory
• A counterpoint to the goal-setting theory.
• In reinforcement theory, a behavioristic approach, which
argues that reinforcement conditions behavior.
• Reinforcement theorists see behavior as being
behaviorally caused.
• Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the
individual and concentrates solely on what happens to a
person when he or she takes some action.
• It does however provide a powerful means of analysis of
what controls behavior.

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 Equity Theory
• Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those
of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities.
• Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only
with the absolute amount of rewards for their efforts, but also
with the relationship of this amount to what others receive.
• Historically, equity theory focused on:
• distributive justice or the perceived fairness of the amount and
allocation of rewards among individuals. However, equity
should also consider procedural justice or the perceived fairness
of the process used to determine the distribution of
rewards. Interactional justice is also important.
• *Question: So, what happens when your pay is “inequitable”?

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 Expectancy Theory
• The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on
the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by
a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to
the individual. The theory focuses on three relationships:
• Effort-performance relationship or the probability perceived by
the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead
to performance.
• Performance-reward relationship or the degree to which the
individual believes that performing at a particular level will
lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
• Rewards-personal goals relationship or the degree to which
organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or
needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for
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 Summary and Implications for
Managers
Need Theories
•– Maslow’s hierarchy, Two factor, ERG, & McClelland’s
Goal Setting Theory
•– Clear and difficult goals often lead to higher levels of
employee productivity.
Reinforcement Theory
•– Good predictor of quality and quantity of work, persistence
of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.

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 Summary and Implications
for Managers
Equity Theory
•– Strongest when predicting absence and turnover
behaviors.
•– Weakest when predicting differences in employee
productivity.
Expectancy Theory
•- Focus on performance variables
•- It is a “rational” model so be careful when using it
•- This theory may be better applied to employees with greater
discretion in their jobs (i.e., as opposed to semi-skilled
positions)
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