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Movements:
o mouth => pharynx => esophagus = Deglutition or Swallowing
o Mixing movements occur in the stomach as a result of smooth muscle
contraction => Segmentation (repetitive contractions in small segments
of the digestive tract)
o Propelling food particles through the digestive tract => peristalsis
(rhythmic waves of contractions).
• Basic structure of the wall is the same throughout the entire length of the tube.
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscular layer
• Secretions of the exocrine gastric glands (mucous, parietal, and chief cells) make up
the gastric juice.
• Products of the endocrine cells are secreted directly into the bloodstream and are not
a part of the gastric juice.
Endocrine cells secrete the hormone gastrin, which functions in the
regulation of gastric activity.
Regulation of Gastric Secretions
Stomach Emptying
• Relaxation of the pyloric sphincter allows chyme to pass from the stomach into the
small intestine.
• The rate of which this occurs depends on the nature of the chyme and the receptivity
of the small intestine.
Stomach Lining Basics
•Surface mucosa cells in the pyloric region secrete a thick, alkaline-rich mucus that protects the
epithelium of the stomach and duodenum from harsh acid conditions of the lumen.
HCl
+HCl
Pepsin
Pepsin
Small Intestine
• Extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve, where it empties
into the large intestine.
• The small intestine finishes the process of digestion, absorbs the nutrients,
and passes the residue on to the large intestine.
• The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are accessory organs of the digestive
system that are closely associated with the small intestine.
• Divided into: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
• Follows the general structure of the digestive tract in that the wall has a
mucosa with simple columnar epithelium, submucosa, smooth muscle with
inner circular and outer longitudinal layers, and serosa.
• Absorptive surface area of the small intestine is increased by plicae circulares,
villi, and microvilli.
Small Intestine…
• Exocrine cells in the mucosa of the small intestine secrete mucus, peptidase,
sucrase, maltase, lactase, lipase, and enterokinase.
• Endocrine cells secrete cholecystokinin and secretin.
• The most important factor for regulating secretions in the small intestine is the
presence of chyme.
This is largely a local reflex action in response to chemical and
mechanical irritation from the chyme and in response to distention of the
intestinal wall.
This is a direct reflex action, thus the greater the amount of chyme, the
greater the secretion.
Large Intestine
• Large intestine is larger in diameter than the small intestine.
• It begins at the ileocecal junction, where the ileum enters the large intestine, and ends
at the anus.
• The large intestine consists of the colon, rectum, and anal canal.
• The wall of the large intestine has the same types of tissue that are found in other
parts of the digestive tract but there are some distinguishing characteristics.
The mucosa has a large number of goblet cells but does not have any villi.
The longitudinal muscle layer, although present, is incomplete.
The longitudinal muscle is limited to three distinct bands, called teniae coli, that run the entire
length of the colon.
Contraction of the teniae coli exerts pressure on the wall and creates a series of pouches, called
haustra, along the colon.
Epiploic appendages, pieces of fat-filled connective tissue, are attached to the outer surface of the
colon.
• Unlike the small intestine, the large intestine produces no digestive enzymes.
Chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine.
• Functions of the large intestine = absorption of water and electrolytes and
elimination of feces.
Rectum and Anus
• Rectum continues from the sigmoid colon to the anal canal and has a thick muscular
layer.
It follows the curvature of the sacrum and is firmly attached to it by connective
tissue.
Rectum ends about 5 cm below the tip of the coccyx, at the beginning of the anal
canal.
• Last 2 to 3 cm of the digestive tract is the anal canal (continues from the rectum and
opens to the outside at the anus).
Mucosa of the rectum is folded to form longitudinal anal columns.
Smooth muscle layer is thick and forms the internal anal sphincter at the superior
end of the anal canal.
This sphincter is under involuntary control.
There is an external anal sphincter at the inferior end of the anal canal.
This sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control.
Accessory Organs
• The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are not part of the digestive
tract, but they have a role in digestive activities and are considered accessory
organs.
Salivary Glands
• 3 pairs of major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands)
and numerous smaller ones secrete saliva into the oral cavity, where it is mixed
with food during mastication. Saliva contains water, mucus, and enzyme amylase.
• Functions of saliva include the following:
It has a cleansing action on the teeth.
It moistens and lubricates food during mastication and swallowing.
It dissolves certain molecules so that food can be tasted.
It begins the chemical digestion of starches through the action of amylase,
which breaks down polysaccharides into disaccharides.
Liver
• The digestive tract includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs, which process
food into molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the body.
• Food undergoes three types of processes in the body: digestion, absorption, and
elimination.
• The digestive system prepares nutrients for utilization by body cells through six
activities, or functions: ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, movements,
absorption, and elimination.
• The wall of the digestive tract has four layers or tunics: mucosa, submucosa, muscular
layer, and serous layer or serosa.
• Regions of the digestive system can be divided into two main parts: alimentary tract and
accessory organs.
• The alimentary tract of the digestive system is composed of the mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus.
• Associated with the alimentary tract are the following accessory organs: salivary glands,
liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
ACID-PEPTIC DISEASES
• In gastroesophageal reflux, acidic stomach content enters into the esophagus causing a
burning sensation in the region of the heart; hence the common name heartburn, or
other names such as indigestion, dyspepsia, pyrosis, etc.
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Dr. Banga_PHMD 444_2021/2022
Therapeutic approaches
• These disorders can be treated by drugs, which are able to:
–– Neutralize gastric acid (HCl) e.g., magnesium hydroxide
–– Reduce gastric acid secretion e.g., cimetidine
–– Enhance mucosal defences e.g., sucralfate
–– Exert antimicrobial action against H.pylori e.g., clarithromycin
• The effective therapeutic approach of ulcer is based on the adage: “no acid, no ulcer”
• Anti–ulcer drugs: drugs used in the prevention and treatment of peptic ulcer disease
act mainly to decrease cell-destructive effects, increase cell–protective effects or
both.
• Uses:
–– More effective than H2 blockers in peptic ulcer disease (PUD)
–– Also effective in GERD and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome
–– Eradication regimen for H. pylori
Lansoprazole
Omeprazole
Rebeprazole
Pantoprazole
Esomeprazole
• They react with hydrochloric acid in the stomach to produce neutral or less acidic or
poorly absorbed salts and raise the PH of stomach secretion, and above PH of 4,
pepsin become inactive.
• Major clinical indication is prevention & treatment of peptic ulcer disease (but also
Zollinger Ellison syndrome and reflux esophagitis).
• Anticholinergic drugs are not used alone in the treatment of peptic ulcer. However, they
are combined with H2-antagonists to further decrease acid secretion, with antacids to
delay gastric emptying and thereby prolong acid-neutralizing effects, or with any anti-
ulcer drug for antispasmodic effect in abdominal pain.
• Anticholinergic side effects (anorexia, blurry vision, constipation, dry mouth, sedation)
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Prostaglandins
• Misoprostol
• PGE1 analog
Precipitants:
• Chelated Bismuth
• Protects the ulcer crater and allows healing
• Some activity against H. pylori
• Should not be used repeatedly or for more than 2
months at a time
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Can cause black stools, constipation Dr. Banga_PHMD 444_2021/2022 53
Helicobacter pylori
www.science.org.au/ nobel/2005/images/invasion.jpg
H. pylori are bacteria able to attach to the epithelial cells of the stomach
and duodenum which stops them from being washed out of the stomach.
Once attached, the bacteria start to cause damage to the cells by secreting
degradative enzymes, toxins and initiating a self-destructive immune
response.
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Anti-H.pylori Therapy
• >85% PUD caused by H. pylori
• Antibiotic Ulcer Therapy - Used in Combinations
• Bismuth - Disrupts bacterial cell wall
• Clarithromycin - Inhibits protein systhesis
• Amoxicillin - Disrupts cell wall
• Tetracycline - Inhibits protein synthesis
• Metronidazone - Used often due to bacterial resistance to
amoxicillin and tetracycline, or due to intolerance
Therapy:
1. Bulking agents
2. Osmotic laxatives
3. Stimulant drugs
4. Stool softners
Docusate
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Irratant/Stimulant Laxatives-Cathartics
-Increases intestinal motility
-Irritate the GI mucosa and pull water into the lumen
-Indicated for severe constipation where more rapid effect is required (6-8 hours)
•Castor Oil - From the Castor Bean
•Senna - Plant derivative
•Bisacodyl
•Lubiprostone -PGE1 derivative that stimulates chloride channels, producing
chloride rich secretions
• The term laxative implies mild effects, and elimination of soft formed stool.
• The term cathartic implies strong effects and elimination of liquid or semi
liquid stool.
• Both terms are used interchangeably because it is the dose that determines
the effects rather than a particular drug.
Example:- castor oil laxative effect= 4ml; Cathartic effect = 15-60ml
• Constipation is a common problem in older adults and laxatives are often used or
overused.
• Non-drug measures to prevent constipation (e.g. increasing intake of fluid and
high–fiber foods, exercise) are much preferred to laxatives.
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ANTIDIARRHOEALS
•Pharmacological Treatment
• Discontinue offending antibiotic
• Metronidazole (contraindicated in patients with liver or renal impairment)
• Vancomycin (contraindicated in patients with renal impairment)
Dr. Banga_PHMD 444_2021/2022
Antiflatulants
(Le Pétomane)
Simethicone
•Side Effects
•Very few common side effects - usually well tolerated
•Headache
•Constipation
•Rarely
•Hiccups
•Itchiness
•Transient blindness
Dr. Banga_PHMD 444_2021/2022
Antiemetic Therapeutic Sites - Summary
Cancer Chemotherapy Drugs
Dopamine agonists
Chemoreceptor
Trigger Zone
(CTZ)
Ondansetron Scopolamine
H1 Antihistamines
Phenothiazines
All
Ondansetron
• Vomiting occurs when the vomiting center in the medulla oblongata is stimulated.
• Dopamine and acetylcholine play a major role in stimulating the vomiting center.
• To a certain extent, vomiting is a protective mechanism which can result from various
noxious stimuli.
• Drugs used in nausea and vomiting belong to several different therapeutic classifications.
• Most antiemetic agents relieve nausea and vomiting by acting on the vomiting center,
chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ), cerebral cortex, vestibular apparatus, or a combination
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Drugs for Nausea and Vomiting
Drugs for nausea and vomiting include:
• Cannabinoids: dronabinol