B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.

Gajare
Physiology of Digestion
Digestion is the process by which food consumed by the organism is made available for the body. In
unicellular organisms and in lower non-chordates intra celluler digestion occurs within food vacuoles, in
higher animals digestive system has evolved and the process of digestion is carried out by the digestive
system.

Food is essential for:

1. The digested food is used as source of energy or fuel for the production of energy i. e. ATP.
2. Food is also a source of building blocks for production of essential biomolecules for development
one repair of body tissue.
3. Food provides essential micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals which help and support
various metabolic processes in the body.
4. Water, which is one of the component of food acts ac medium for biochemical reactions of
metabolism. It also actively participates in the reactions like hydrolysis and other.

Diet:
Diet is sum total of food consumed by a person or organism. Based on food consumed by animals they
are of following types:
1. Herbivore: Animals feed on Plants and plant products.
2. Carnivore: Animals feed on other animals.
3. Fingivore: Animals fess on fungus.
4. Bacterivore: Animals feed on bacteria.
5. Saprophyte: Animals feed on decaying material.
6. Omnivores: Animals feed on plant, animals, Fungi, bacteria etc. Human is a n omnivore.
Essential components of diet are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids vitamins minerals and water.
Carbohydrates: They are made up of C,H,O. Diet includes carbohydrates in the form of polysaccharides
like starch and glucogen, cellulose disaccharides like lactose and sucrose and very few monosaccharides
glucose, fructose and galactose.
Sorces; Cereals like wheat, rice, barly, jawar, corn, otes, Starch vegetables like potato yams, sweet potato.
Fruits have glucose fructose, milk sugar is lactose and cane sugar is sucrose.
Daily requirement: 45 to 65 % of total caloric intake i.e. 225 to 325 gm.
Those are energy food serves as preliminary source of energy. They also serves as dietary fibers.
Protein: Proteins are nitrogen containing compound. They are made up of amino acids. There are 20
different types of amino acid incorporated in proteins. Out of that nine are essential amino acids for
human as they are required to be included in diet. Other 11 are non-essential amino acids as they can be
synthesized in human body.
Sources: Pulses, milk, Cheese, yogurt, eggs, meat, sea food, soy products etc.
Daily requirement: 56 gm for average man and 46 gm for average woman.
Proteins are body building food. They help in growth and repair.
Lipids: Lipids are compounds made up of C, H, O. They are in the form of triglycerides, phospholipids,
glycolipids, saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and sterols.
Sources: Oil, Ghee, butter, cheese, milk, meat, other animal food.
Daily requirement: 20 to 35 % of total caloric intake i.e. 44 to 78 gm.
Fats are the richest source of energy. They serve as storage food. They are essential for the absorption of
fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. They also act as insulator.
Vitamins: They are complex organic compounds. They are of two types, Water soluble like Vit B
complex, Vit C and Fat soluble like Vit A, Vir D, Vit E and Vit K. Our body can produce Vit D and VIt
K. Outher vitamins should be the part of diet. Vitamins play important role in metabolism. They may play
structural role or they may act as co-enzymes and co-factors for many key emzymes.

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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare
Minerals: Many mineral ions are essential for normal metabolism. They play divers role in the body.
Irons, Calcium, iodine, phosphate, sodium, potassium are some of the minerals.
Water: Water is chemically H2O, serves as medium. It is involve in various metabolism processes like
hydrolysis. It plays important role in maintaining fluid content, electrolyte balance pH of body flides. It
helps in excretion.
Balanced Diet: The diet which contains all essential nutrients in appropriate proportion is called balanced
diet.

Basic Digestive processes:

Digestive system performs four basic processes like motility, secretion digestion and absorption.
1. Motility: It refers the muscular action. It is of two types, propulsive movement and mixing
movement.
2. Secretion: A number of digestive juices are secreted by various parts of digestive tract and
accessory glands. Secretion is active process. These secretions mainly contain large amount of
water, electrolytes and specific organic constituents like enzymes, mucus, bile salts etc. These
secretions are essential for digestion.
Apart from that digestive tract also secretes many hormones which control various metabolic
activities.
3. Digestion: The food we consume has complex polymers. They are large molecules and can not
cross the plasma membrane, so cannot be absorbed. So they have to be converted into simple
forms by the process of digestion.
Definition: Digestion can be defined as a biochemical breakdown of the structurally
complex food stuff of the diet into smaller absorbable units by the action of enzymes
produced by digestive system.
4. Absorption: In small intestine process of digestion is completed. The small absorbable units
resulted from digestion are absorbed by the cells of small intestine along with water vitamins and
electrolytes. After absorption food is transferred to blood.

Digestive system:
The wall of the alimentary canal has four layers. Those from inside out are,
1. Mucosa: It is innermost layer. It consist of three parts,
a. Mucous membrane: It is a layer of surface epithelium. It is modified in different parts of
alimentary canal for protection, secretion, absorption. In many parts it shows glands
which are extended in lamina proria.
b. Lamina propria: It is connective tissue layer supporting mucosa.
c. Muscularis mucosa: It is a layer of smooth muscles. In some parts it is spare while in
others it is prominent.
2. Submucosa: It is thick layer of connective tissue that provides distensibility and elasticity. It has
blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerve plexus, structures related to immune system.
3. Muscularis externa: It is smooth muscle coat. It has two layer. Inner layer of circular muscles
and outer layer of longitudinal muscles. It provides motility to the tract. It is supplied wit
myenteric nerve plexus.
4. Serosa: It is outermost covering. It consists of thin layer of connective tissue covered by
mesothelial cell layer. It is in continuation with the mesentery.
The digestive system consists of the digestive tract and accessory digestive organs.
1. Digestive tract: It is also called as gastro-intestinal tract or alimentary canal. It is tubular
structure running through the middle of the body. It includes following organs.
a. Mouth
b. Pharynx
c. Oesophagus

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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare
d. Stomach
e. Small intestine (Duodenum, jejunum and ileum)
f. Large intestine (Cecum, Appendix, colon and rectum)
2. Accessory organs: The organs which lie outside the wall digestive tract but their secretions are
carried through respective ducts to the tract. Following are the accessory organs,
a. Salivary glands (Parotid, Submandibular, Sublingual)
b. Pancreas (Exocrine part)
c. Liver and gall bladder.

Salivary glands
Mouth
Epiglottis
Tongue
Oesophagus

Liver

Stomach
Pancreas

Colon
Cecum
Small Intestine

Appendix
Anus Rectum
Human Digestive system

I. Mouth:
Entry of the alimentary canal is through mouth or oral cavity. This opening is guarded two jaws,
immovable upper jaw and movable lower jaw.
1. Palate: The arched roof of oral cavity is the palate. It separates oral cavity from nasal passage.
Anterior part of palate is hard palate and posterior part is soft palate.
2. Uvula: It is the structure hanging down from the rear end of the palet. It seals the nasal passage
during swallowing.
3. Tongue: At the floor of the oral cavity, thick muscular tongue is present. It guides the food for
chewing. It also helps in swallowing. Taste buds are embedded in the upper pithelium of the
tongue. So it helps to detect the taste of the food.
4. Teeth: On both jaws teeth are present. Those are hard structures formed from dentine and
covered by enamel. The dentition in human is thecodont as teeth are firmly embedded in the
sockets of jaw bone, diphyodont as humans have two sets of teeth and heterodont, having
different types of teeth. Four types of teeth, Incisors, canines, premolars and molars are present.
They are structurally similar but have different shapes and perform different functions. Incisors
are made for biting and cutting, canines for tearing, premolar and molars for chewing and
crushing. There are total 16 teeth in each jaw. The dental formula of human is,
Upper Jaw 2I1C2PM3M 2123 8 X 2 16 Total 32
Lower law 2I1C2PM3M 2123 8 X 2 16

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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare
5. Salivary glands: Three pairs of major salivary glands are associated with mouth. They are tubula
alveolar glands. They are located outside the oral cavity and pour their secretions, saliva in the
oral cavity through their ducts.
a. The largest salivary gland is parietal gland. A pair of these glands is located in chick
region below the ear. The secretion of this gland has more amount of serous than mucus.
b. Second gland is sub-mandibular, a pair of which is located below the mandibles. Its
secretion contents both serous and mucus.
c. The smallest salivary gland is sub-lingual its pair is located below the tongue. Its
secretion is mostly mucus.
Constituents of Saliva: Secretion of salivary gland is called saliva. It is composed of 99.5%
water and 0.5% electrolytes and proteins. The most important salivary proteins are an enzyme
amylase, mucus and lysozymes.
Salivary secretion is continuous. It can be increase by reflex.
Functions of Saliva:
i. Salivary amylase is a carbohydrate digesting enzyme. It begins digestion of
carbohydrates in mouth. It acts on polysaccharides and hydrolyse them to
monosaccharides.
ii. Mucus in saliva facilitates swallowing by moistening food particles, holding them
together and providing lubrication.
iii. Lysozymes in saliva exerts antibacterial action, destroy certain bacteria by breaking
down their cell wall.
iv. Saliva helps in detection of taste. Taste buds can taste the food only if it is in dissolved
form. Saliva serves as a solvent and made the food particles available for taste buds.
v. Saliva keeps the mouth moist and help in speech.
vi. Saliva keeps the mouth and teeth clean.
vii. Saliva is rich in bicarbonates, which neutralises acids in food and acids produced bacteria
in mouth thereby helping to prevent dental caries.
Digestion in Mouth:
1. Mechanical Digestion: First step of digestion is mastication. It takes place in mouth with the
help of teeth. Tongue assists in this process. It converts large pieces of food into small particles. It
enhances digestive process.
2. Enzymatic Digestion: salivary glands secrete salivary amylase. It digests polysaccharides to
disaccharides. It acts on the glycoside bond between two successive monosaccharides and
hydrolyse the bond.
Salivary amylase
Polysaccharide Disaccharides

3. Proteins and lipids are not digested in mouth.

4. No absorption of food stuff occurs in mouth.

II. Pharynx and Oesophagus

1. Pharynx is a common passage for digestive and respiratory tract. At the base of pharynx
there is an opening of oesophagus called gullet and opening of trachea called glottis. The
respiratory passage remains open continuously except at the time of swallowing. During
swallowing the glottis is closed by a cartilaginous flap called epiglottis.
2. In mouth bolus or ball of food is produced in mouth. It is voluntarily forced by tongue
and pressed against pallet to the back part of mouth into the pharynx. This stimulates
swallowing action.

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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare
3. Oesophagus is a tube which carries food from pharynx to stomach. It merely acts as
passage for food. A rapid peristaltic wave sweeps the food in oesophagus within 5 to 9
sec.
4. Secretions of oesophagus mainly include protective mucus to prevent damage to the wall
by sharp edges of food particles.
5. No digestion or absorption takes place in pharynx or oesophagus.

III. Stomach
Stomach is the most dilated part of alimentary canal. Anatomically it is divided into fundus,
body and pyloric antrum.
At its junction with oesophagus, it has a cardiac sphincter and at the junction with duodenum
has a pyloric sphincter.
The cardiac sphincter prevents the retrieval of food from stomach to oesophagus. Pyloric
sphincter regulates the flow and rate of emptying of stomach in to oesophagus.

Fundus
Oesophagus

Cardiac Sphincter

Pyloric Sphincter
Body
Duodenum

Pylorus
The wall of stomach is thick muscular. It of
Parts hasStomach
an extra muscle layer called oblique muscle
layer inner to the circular muscle layer. Muscularis mucosa is also thicker in stomach. These
muscles help in churning of food.
Volume of empty stomach is about 50ml. It can accommodate about 1 lit meal. It is possible
because of deep longitudinal folds of Mucosa. They gives extra distensability to stomach
without rise in intrinsic pressure.
At the base of gastric folds there are gastric pits. At these gastric pits openings of gastric
glands are present. Gastric glands secrete gastric juice which helps indigestion.
Functions of stomach: Stomach carries three major functions
1. Storage of the food: The ingested food is stored in stomach until it passes to duodenum. It
takes hors to pass the food further sue to very slow peristaltic movement and control by
pyloric stomach.
2. Mechanical digestion and mixing of food: food is mixed with gastric juice by the muscle
action. Mixing movement of stomach wall also carry out churning of food. This action
converts food in to smaller particles. During the churning both cardiac and pyloric
sphincters remain closed.
3. Enzymatic digestion: This is carried out by the action of gastric juice secreted by gastric
gland.

Gastric Glands:
Gastric glands are mucosal glands embedded in mucosa of stomach. These are simple tubular or branched
tubular or coiled tubular glands. The glands of fundas region secrete mainly mucus. The glands of body
region secrete mucus, hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen while pylaral glands secrete mucus, pepsinogen
and gastrin.
The Glands of body regions are made up of three types of cells: Mucous cells secreting mucus, parietal
cells or oxyntic calls secreting HCl and Chief cells or zymogen cells secreting pepsinogen.

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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare
Apart from that G cells of gastric gland secrete hormone gastrin, D cells secrete hormone somatostatin
and enterochromaffinlike (ECL) cells secrete histamine.

Surface epithelium
Mucous cells
Neck

Parietal cells

Endocrine cells

Chief cells

Gastric Gland
Functions of mucus:
1. Mucus acts as lubricant and prevents ay mechanical damage to stomach wall by food particles.
2. A layer of thick mucus is secreted by epithelial cells of stomach wall. It does not allow the
digestive enzyme pepsin to come in contact with stomach wall.
3. This mucus is alkaline in nature. It neutralizes HCl and protects stomach wall from its action.

Functions of HCl:
1. Pepsin is protein digesting enzyme. It is secreted in inactive form pepsinogen. HCl Activates
Pepsinogen to pepsin.
HCl
Pepsinogen Pepsin

2. The optimum PH for the action of pepsin is acidic. HCl creates acidic environment in stomach
which is essential for the action of pepsin.
3. It carries out breakdown of connective tissue and muscles. Thus helps in their digestion.
4. Along with salivary lysozymes it also kills micro-organisms present in egested food.
5. It inhibits the action of salivay amylase. The action of salivary amylase may continue in the core
region of the ingested food in stomach. But as soon as it comes in contact with HCl, it is
inhibited.
6. HCl dissolves some of the food contents like bones, cartilage and other hard particles.

Functions of Pepsin:
Pepsin like most of the protein digesting enzymes is secreted in inactive form pepsinogen. It
prevents self digestion of chief cells and gastric glands. The inactive pepsinogen is synthesized in chief
cells and stored in small membrane bound vesicles. Such vesicles can be observed at luminal end of the
chief cells. These vesicles are called zymogen granules. So the cells are also named as zymogen cells.
Pepsinogen is secreted only after receiving the signal.
Pepsin is protein digesting enzyme. It is serine protease. It cleaves peptide bond between
hydrophobic and perfectly aromatic amino acids. It is an endopeptidase as it acts n non-terminal peptide
bonds. Its action is hydrolysis i.e. breaking of a bond by adding a water molecule (H2O H++OH-).

Pepsin
(Autocatalyst)
Pepsinogen Pepsin

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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare

Pepsin
Protein (Polypeptide) + H2O Fragments of Polypeptides
Acidic pH (Peptones + Proteoses)

Functions of Gastrin:
Gastrin is a proteinous hormone secreted by endocrine cells of gastric glands at antral
region. The hormone is secreted in blood. It acts on the gastric gland and enhances the secretion.

Digestion summary:
1. Mechanical digestion of food takes place in stomach. The thick muscular wall of
stomach carries out churning of food by contraction and relaxation.
2. Digestion of proteins to smaller polypeptides (peptones and proteoses) by the action
of pepsin.
3. Digestion of polysaccharides by salivary amylase is continued in stomach before its
inhibition by HCl.
Absorption:
No food stuff is absorbed in stomach. Wall of stomach can absorb alcohol and aspirin.

IV. Small Intestine

Small intestine is the longest part of alimentary canal. It is long narrow and coiled tube. The wall of small
intestine is made suitable for the digestion and absorption. Special features of small intestine are
1. Presence of goblet cells. Goblet cells are single celled glands among the surface epithelial cells.
They secrete mucus.
2. Inner surface of intestine is thrown into folds:
a. Presence of pliqua: Pliqua are the large folds of submucosa of intestinal wall. The core
of plique are made up of submucosa covered by mucosa on luminal side.
b. Villi: Villi are the folds of mucosa. The core of folds is of lamina propria covered by
surface epithelium.
c. Microvilli: Plasma membrane of luminal surface of the epithelial cells is thrown into
finger like folds called microvilli.
The structures like Plique, Villi and Microvilli increase the surface area of small intestine by 600
folds, which increase the efficiency of absorption.
3. Perfused blood supply: There is large number of blood vessels supplied to the small intestine as
the absorbed food is transported through the blood.
4. Pears patches: Large patches of lymphoid tissue are present in the submucosa of small intestine
called pears patches.
5. Duodenum the first part of small intestine receives common hepatopancreatic duct. This duct
brings bile from gall bladder and pancreatic juice from pancreas. So digestion in small intestine
includes action of bile, pancreatic juice, intestinal juice and lining epithelial cells.
6. Duodenum has extra protection of higher mucus secretion by submucosal Brunner’s gland
present only in this region.

Digestion in small Intestine:

Digestion in small intestine includes action of bile, pancreatic juice, intestinal juice and lining
epithelial cells.
Bile:
Bile is greenish coloured watery alkaline secretion of liver. Liver is the largest gland in vertebrate’s
body. It is central biochemical factory of the body. It influences almost all metabolisms in the body. One
of its functions is secretion of bile. Bile is continuously secreted by hepatocytes and carried by bile
canaliculi to bile ducts which carry it to gall bladder; in gall bladder it is stored until it receives a signal.
Secretion of bile is under the control of two hormones, Secretin and Cholecystokinin (CCK).

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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare
Constituents of Bile: Bile consist of following components,
1. Bile salts: Bile salts are derivatives of cholesterol. These are taurocholate and glycocholate.
Apart from these organic salts bile also contains NaHCO3. Bile salts are recycled through
enterohepatic circulation.
2. Bile Pigments: These are bilirubin and biliverdin. These are the products of haemoglobin
degradation. Those are excreted through bile to duodenum and then to exterior with feces.
3. Cholesterol: Excess of cholesterol is thrown out through bile.
4. Lecithin
5. Water
Functions of Bile:
a. The bicarbonate ions neutralise the acidic chyme entered in duodenum from stomach.
b. It acts as good buffer.
c. Bile acts as lubricant.
d. Bile salts help in emulsification of lipids.
i. Lipids are hydrophobic in nature. So lipids in the food forms a large aggregate to
remain isolated from the aqueous environment.
ii. In this form it is difficult to digest as the lipid digesting enzyme, lipase is
hydrophilic in nature and can act on at the surface of the lipid aggregate.
iii. Bile salts have hydrophobic as well as hydrophilic regions in the same molecule.
iv. They can interact with lipids with the hydrophobic regions and with aqueous
surrounding with hydrophilic region.
v. So they convert large lipid aggregates into small droplets, with surface covered
by bile salts. This makes the droplets stable in aqueous environment.
vi. This enhances the lipid digestion as lipase can act on the surface of each droplet.
e. Bile salts activate pancreatic lipase in some animals.
f. Bile salts help in fat absorption.

Functions of Liver Other than bile secretion: (Not related to digestion and absorption)
1. Liver stores Excess glucose in the form of glycogen by the process of glycogenesis and make the
glucose available whenever it needs by the process of glycogenolysis.
2. Liver can carry out interconvertion of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.
3. Synthesis and secretion of Plasma proteins.
4. Liver stores fat soluble vitamins i. e. Vitamin A, D, E and K. Activation of vitamin D.
5. Liver carries out deamination of excess amino acids.
6. Liver synthesises nitrogenous waste product urea by ornithine cycle.
7. Liver carries out detoxification and bioactivation.
8. Liver synthesises many blood clotting factors.
9. Liver synthesises many factors essential for body defence.
10. Liver synthesises vitelogenin, a protein which is stored in ovum.
11. Liver carries out break down of worn out RBCs.
12. Excretion of excess cholesterol, lecithin, bilirubin and biliverdin.
13. Liver acts as haematopoietic organ during embryonic period.

Pancreatic Juice:
Pancreatic juice is called as complete digestive juice. It is secreted by exocrine pancreas.
Pancreas is the second largest gland of vertebrate’s body. It is duel in nature. Pancreatic acini with its duct
system comprises exocrine pancreas, while islets of Langerhans form the endocrine pancreas. Exocrine
pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, which is carried through the pancreatic duct to duodenum. Endocrine
pancreas secretes hormones insulin and glucagon which regulate blood glucose level.
Pancreatic acini are grapes like hollow structures. They are made up of acinar cells. Each acinar
cell is pyramidal in shape and shows the features of typical secretary cell. It has basal nucleus, abundant
RER, Golgi complex and large number of zymogen granules occupying apical region.
Components of Pancreatic Juice:
Pancreatic juice consisting of two components:
1. Aqueous alkaline secretion: it contains bicarbonates of Na, actively secreted by early portion
of ducts.

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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare
2. Enzymatic secretion: it is actively secreted by pancreatic acinar cells Enzymatic secretion has
three types of enzymes.
a. Proteolytic enzymes: typsinogen, chymotypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase those
digest proteins.
b. Pancreatic amylase that digests carbohydrates.
c. Pancreatic lipase that digests fat.
Functions of Pancreatic Juice:
Aqueous alkaline solution: Pancreatic juice is alkaline in nature as it content bicarbonate ions
secreted by early ducts. It neutralizes acidic chime and provide alkaline environment for the
action of pancreatic and intestinal enzymes.
Proteolytic enzymes of pancreas are synthesized and secreted in inactive form. They are
activated after reaching to their target site i.e. duodenum. This is for the protection of pancreas
and duct system from self digestion. In Intestine the wall is lined by a layer of mucus which
protects the intestine from self digestion. Pancreatic juice contents three proteolytic enzymes.
1. Trypsinogen: it is activated by enterokinase, synthesized by intestinal epithelial calls. After
activation trypsin can act as autocatalyst. Trypsin digests proteins by braking peptide bonds at
carboxyl side of lysine and arginine.

Enterokinase
Trypsinogen Trypsin

Trypsin
(Autocatalyst)
Trypsinogen Trypsin

Trypsin
Protein peptones and proteoses
Alkaline pH

2. Chymotrypsinogen: It is secreted by pancreatic acinar cells. It is inactive form. It is

activated by typsin. It digests proteins by cleaving peptide bond at N-terminal of tryptophan,
tyrosine, Phenylalanine or leucine.

Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen Chymotrypsin

Chymotrypsin
Protein peptones and proteoses
Alkaline pH

3. Procarboxypeptidase: It is activated by trypsin. It acts on the carboxy terminus of the

polypeptide chain. It removes one amino acid at a time.
Trypsin
Procarboxypeptidase Carboxypeptidase

Carboxypeptidase
Protein Smaller Polypeptides + Amino acid
Alkaline pH

Pancreatic amylase:
It is secreted in pancreatic juice in an active form. It acts on polysaccharides and
hydrolyse it into disaccharides.

Pancreatic amylase
Polysaccharide Disaccharides
Alkaline pH
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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare

Pancreatic Lipase:
Pancreatic lipase is secreted in active or inactive form in different animals. It is very
important enzyme as it is the only lipid digestive enzyme in the digestive system. It acts on triglycerides
and digest it in to monoglycerides and free fatty acids.

Pancreatic lipase
Triglycerides Monoglycerides + Free Fatty acids
Alkaline pH

Monosaccharides and fatty acids are also hydrophobic. So those are enveloped into 4-7nm
diameter structures called micelles. These are made up of bile salts lecithin and cholesterol present in bile.
These structures are very minute and soluble in water.

Intestinal Juice:
1. Secretion of small intestine is called succus entericus.
2. It contents water, salts and mucus.
3. No enzymes are secreted directly into intestinal juice.
4. The enzymes synthesized by intestinal epithelial cells remain attached to the plasma
membrane of the cells at microvilli.
5. This facilitates the absorption of digested food after their complete digestion.
6. The intestinal enzymes complete the digestion.
7. Digestion of Proteins:
a. Polypeptides, peptones and proteoses are completely digested to amino acid by
various intestinal enzymes.
b. Small peptides are digested by aminopeptidases. Tripeptides are digested by
tripeptidases. Dipeptides are digested by dipeptidases.

Aminopeptidases
Small Peptides Amino acids
Alkaline pH

Tripeptides
Tripeptides Amino acids
Alkaline pH

Dipeptides
Dipeptides Amino acids
Alkaline pH

8. Digestion of carbohydrates:
Polysaccharides are digested to disaccharides by salivary and pancreatic amylase. Further
digestion is carried out by intestinal enzymes. The product of starch and glycogen digestion is
a disaccharide maltose. Apart from that lactose- the milk sugar and sucrose-the cane sugar is
also the part of our diet. All these disaccharides are digested by their respective intestinal
enzymes.
Maltase
Maltose 2 Glucose
(Glucose-Glucose) Alkaline pH

Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose
(Glucose-Galactose) Alkaline pH
Sucrase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
(Glucose-Fructose) Alkaline pH
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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare

9. Digestion of Lipids:
Lipids are digested completely by pancreatic lipase to its absorbable form i.e. to
monoglycerides and free fatty acids. No other enzyme is available and required for lipid
digestion.
Thus digestion in small intestine is the combine and coordinated functions bile, pancreatic juice
intestinal enzymes and intestinal juice.

V. Large Intestine:
The large intestine consists of cecum, appendix, colon and rectum. Cecum is a blind ended pouch
below the junction of small intestine and large intestine. Appendix is finger like projection at the bottom
of cecum. It is considered as vestigial structure in human. It houses good bacteria and help to restore the
gut flora. It is also acts as lymphoid organ. In most of the ruminants it houses cellulose digesting bacteria,
which produces an enzyme called cellulase. Cellulase digests cellulose to shorter polysaccharides, some
oligosaccharides and glucose.

Cellulase
Cellulose Shorter polysaccharides + Oligosaccharides +Glucose

Colon is the largest part of large intestine. It has three straight parts viz. ascending colon, transverse colon
and descending colon. The terminal portion of descending colon is S-shaped sigmoid colon. Next to colon
is the straight rectum, which opens exteriorly by anus. Anus is guarded by anal sphincter. Internal anal
sphincter muscles are smooth muscles (involuntary) while external anal sphincter muscles are voluntary.
Secretion of large intestine:
Large intestine does not secrete any digestive enzyme, as the process of digestion is completed in small
intestine. The secretion of large intestine contents bicarbonate ions and mucus. Bicarbonate ions are
alkaline in nature. They neutralize the acid produced by fermenting bacteria. Mucus is protective in
nature. It protests large intestinal wall from mechanical injury. It also acts as lubricant.
Absorption in large intestine:
Large intestine receives about 500 ml residue from small intestine. It contents indigestible food,
unabsorbed biliary compounds and remaining fluid. Large intestine absorbs salts and water from this. At
the end of the process feces is formed, which is stored before defecation. Defecation occurs by defecation
reflex, received by internal anal sphincter.

Absorption
I. Absorption of carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates are absorbed in the form of monosaccharides, like glucose, galactose and
fructose.
2. These are the end products of carbohydrate digestion, which is finalized on digestion of
disaccharides by their respective disaccharidase located in the plasma membrane of
microvilli.
3. Absorption of Glucose and Galactose:
a. Glucose and galactose are absorbed by secondary active transport as energy is
not directly used for the transport of these monosaccharides.
b. Glucose and galactose are cotransported along with Na+ from luminal side to the
interior of intestinal cells.
c. Cotransporter operation does not use the energy directly.
d. Absorption of both the monosaccharides depend on Na+ concentration gradient.
e. Na+ concentration is maintained high in the lumen and low in the interior of the
cell.
f. This concentration gradient is generated actively (by consuming energy) Na+- K+
pump.
g. Thus glucose and galactose are concentrated in the cell by this cotranspoter
activity.
h. Then those are absorbed in the blood vessels in villi by passive transport down
the concentration gradient.
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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare
i.
The passive carriers for the monosaccharides are located at basolateral sides of
intestinal cells.
j. In addition to that, significant amount of glucose directly cross the ‘leaky tight
junctions’ and absorbed through intercellular region of adjacent epithelial cells.
4. Absorption of Fructose:
a. Fructose is absorbed solely by facilitated diffusion.
b. It is transported passively.

Absorption of Carbohydrates

II. Absorption of protein

a. Digested products of proteins are the free amino acids.
b. Small peptides, tripeptides and dispeptides are digested to free fatty acids by their
respective enzymes, which are attached to the microvilli of intestinal epithelium.
c. Amino acids are also cotransported from lumen to intestinal epithelium along with Na+
down the concentration gradient of Na+ like glucose and galactose.
d. Like monosaccharides, amino acids are also transported to capillaries from intestinal cells
of villi by passive transport down the concentration gradient.

Absorption of proteins

III. Absorption of Lipids

a. End products of lipid digestion are monoglycerides and free fatty acids.
b. These end products are hydrophobic, so they are packaged into water soluble micelles.
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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare
c. Micelles are formed by bile salts lecithin and cholesterol facilitates lipid absorption.
d. Micelles carry the monoglycerides and fatty acids to the luminal surface of intestinal
epithelial cells.
e. Here monoglycerides and fatty acids passively diffuse to the lipid component of plasma
membrane and enter inside the cell.
f. Micelles are then recycled to carry more monoglycerides and fatty acids.
g. Interior of the epithelial cell triglycerides are resynthesized from monoglycerides and
fatty acids.
h. These triglycerides are also hydrophobic so the form droplets, which are covered by a
layer of lipoprotein.
i. Such water soluble fat droplets are called chylomicrons.
j. Chylomicrons are exocytosed into interstitial fluid of villus. From there they enter the
central lacteal.
k. Thus fats are absorbed into lymphatics and not directly into blood.
l. Fat absorption is appeared to be energy independent but for the secretion of bile salts and
for resynthesis of triglycerides energy is required.

Absorption of fat

Regulation of Gastrointestinal functions

Digestive motility and exocrine and endocrine secretions are regulated to maximize digestion and
absorption. Ways of regulation gastro-intestinal functions are,
1. Autonomous Smooth muscle function:
a. Some self excitable smooth muscle cells called pacesettet cells or interstitial cells of
Cajal are present in between longitudinal and circular muscle layers.
b. A slow wave of contraction is initiated by these cells and spread to the adjacent cells.
c. When this slow wave reaches to a threshold level, results in rhythmic contraction of
smooth muscles.
d. The threshold is reached on the effect of nervous and hormonal facters.
2. Intrinsic Nerve Plexuses:
a. Two major intrinsic nerve plexuses are present. They are, Myentric plexus and
submucosal plexus.
b. Some sensory neurons and some motor neurons are present in these plexuses.
c. Motor neurons regulate muscle contraction, secretions of exocrine and endocrine glands.
d. Some motor neurons are stimulatory, enhance the activity, while some are inhibitory
neurons, slow down the activity.
3. Extrinsic Nerve Plexuses
a. These are the branches of autonomous nervous system innervated in various organs of
digestive system.

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B.Sc.I Physiology of Digestion Dr.K.A.Gajare
b. They are sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves having opposite actions.
c. Sympathetic system dominates in fight and flight situations and slow down the motility
and secretion of digestive tract.
d. Parasympathetic system dominates in relaxed situations tend to optimise smooth muscle
activity and secretions.
4. Gastro-intestinal hormones
a. Endocrine cells are found to scattered in various parts of digestive tract. They secrete
various hormones in the blood to regulate the GI activity.
b. Endocrine secretions of Gastric glands:
i. Gastrin: It is secreted by G cells. It stimulates secretion of HCl and pepsinogen.
It enhances gastric motility, stimulates ileal motility and induces mass
movements in colon.
ii. Somatostatin: It is secreted by D cells. It inhibits parietal cells, g cells and ECL
cells. Thus it inhibits HCl and pepsinogen secretion.
iii. Histamine: It is secreted by enterochromaffinlike (ECL) cells. It stimulate
parietal cells i.e. HCl secretion.
c. Endocrine secretions of Small Intestine: Presence of acidic chyme in duodenum
stimulates secretion of intestinal hormones.
i. Enterogastron: It acts in stomach. It inhibits the action gastric glands.
ii. Secretin: It inhibits gastric emptying. It inhibits gastric secretions. It stimulates
pancreatic duct cells to produce large amount of bicarbonates. It stimulates liver
to secrete bicarbonate rich bile.
iii. Cholecystokinin (CCK): It inhibits gastric motility and secretion. It stimulates
pancreatic acinar cells to secrete their enzymes. It causes contraction of gall
bladder to release bile. It plays a key role in satiety i.e sensation of having
enough food.
iv. Enterocrinin: It stimulates intestinal cells to secrete intestinal juice and to
synthesise intestinal enzymes.

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