OPTION C.

2 – COMMUNITIES
& ECOSYSTEMS

Essential Idea: Changes in

community structure affect and
are affected by organisms.
C.2 – A – Energy Flow
IB BIO – C.2 Recall from Topic 4.2 that food chains are diagrams that use arrows 3
to show the flow of energy through ecoystems. Since producers
directly absorb light, they form the base of every chain.
INTRO

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Qhx7rjblStE/VlIZG8Cy4WI/AAAAAAAAAKE/6QcaLAFc7Oo/s1600/food-chain-1.png
IB BIO – C.2 Trophic levels describe a species’ 4
Understandings
position in a food chain.

U1: Most The diagram to the left shows

species occupy trophic levels in an aquatic and
different trophic
a terrestrial food chains.
levels in
multiple food
chains. Trophic levels include:

• 1st level = producers

• 2nd level = primary

Key Terms consumers

Trophic Level • 3rd level = tertiary consumers

• 4th level = quaternary

consumers

https://apesreview.weebly.com/uploads/2/5/8/5/25859239/510625560.gif
IB BIO – C.2 Trophic relationships in a community can be complex and web-like as 5
Understandings
many consumers feed on several species. Food webs are diagrams
that show the interactions of various food chains.
U2: A food web
shows all the
possible food
chains in a
community.

Key Terms

Food Web

http://idahoptv.org/sciencetrek/topics/food_chain/images/web2.png
IB BIO – C.2 Most species occupy different trophic levels in multiple food chains. 6

Understandings
For example, in this food web, the leopard seal is a tertiary or
quaternary consumer depending on which food chain is observed.
U1: Most
species occupy
different trophic
levels in
multiple food
chains.

Key Terms

Food Web

https://cdn.thinglink.me/api/image/723207164000206849/1240/10/scaletowidth
IB BIO – C.2 In ecology, productivity refers to the rate at which biomass is 7

Understandings
generated and is measured in mass per area time (e.g. kg·m -2·yr-1).
Biomass is the total mass of dry organic weight in an area.
U3: The
percentage of
ingested energy
converted to
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

https://www.elementar.de/uploads/tx_templavoila/biomasse-biomass-elementar.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 Primary production results from the synthesis of biomass by 8

Understandings
autotrophs from inorganic molecules (photosynthesis).

U3: The
percentage of
ingested energy
converted to
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

http://sciencebitz.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/nsp.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 Primary production results from the synthesis of biomass by 9

Understandings
autotrophs from inorganic molecules (photosynthesis).

U3: The
percentage of
ingested energy
converted to
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass
Secondary production results from the production of biomass by
consumers. This is driven by the transfer of organic matter between
trophic levels (ingestion).
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/images/photosynthesis.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 Energy ingested by consumers can be used for life processes or 10

Understandings
converted into biomass. The percentage of ingested energy
converted to biomass depends on the rate of respiration.
U3: The
percentage of
ingested energy
converted to
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

As discussed in Topic 2.8, in cell respiration organic molecules are

broken down to produce ATP which fuels metabolic reactions.
http://photosynthesiseducation.com/photosynthesis-and-cellular-respiration/
IB BIO – C.2 Production in an area can be described in two different ways: 11

Understandings
• Gross production = total amount of biomass produced per unit
U3: The area per unit time
percentage of
ingested energy
converted to
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Gross/Net
Production • Net production = Gross production - respiration
http://lh3.ggpht.com/-BkE6EHm_tis/USqRUj4altI/AAAAAAAABSo/LdS-cUw1XRk/netprimaryproduction_thumb3.jpg?imgmax=800
IB BIO – C.2 12

Understandings

U3: The
percentage of
ingested energy
converted to
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Gross/Net
Production
IB BIO – C.2 13

Understandings

U3: The
percentage of
ingested energy
converted to
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Gross/Net
Production
IB BIO – C.2 14

Understandings

U3: The
percentage of
ingested energy
converted to
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Gross/Net
Production
IB BIO – C.2 15

Understandings

U3: The
percentage of
ingested energy
converted to
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Gross/Net
Production
IB BIO – C.2 16

Understandings

U3: The
percentage of
ingested energy
converted to
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Gross/Net
Production
IB BIO – C.2 17

Understandings

U3: The
percentage of
ingested energy
A pyramid of energy for the ecosystem in Silver Springs,
converted to
Florida. All data measured in kJ m-2 yr-1.
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Gross/Net
Production
IB BIO – C.2 Gross production in an ecosystem is affected by many factors 18

Understandings
including space availability, rain, temperature and the stage of
succession (see C.2 – C).
U3: The
percentage of
ingested energy
converted to
biomass is
dependent on
the respiration
rate.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Gross/Net
Production
https://c402277.ssl.cf1.rackcdn.com/photos/1579/images/hero_full/HI_115201.jpg?1345598092
IB BIO – C.2 As shown in the graph below, net primary productivity varies 19

Skills
between ecosystems. This is a result of varying environmental
conditions as well as the organisms involved.
S1: Comparison
of pyramids of
energy from
different
ecosystems.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Gross/Net
Production
https://biomeofthebarrierreef.weebly.com/uploads/4/1/7/1/41712563/7959856_orig.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 A temperate forest has a net production of 38 kJ m– 20
Skills 2
 year–1. Respiration is 100 kJ m–2 year–1. Calculate the
S1: Comparison gross production.
of pyramids of
energy from A. 142 kJ m−2 yr−1 
different
ecosystems.
B. 136 kJ m−2 yr−1 

C. 150 kJ m−2 yr−1  

Key Terms
D. 138 kJ m−2 yr−1 

Productivity

Biomass

Gross/Net
Production
https://biomeofthebarrierreef.weebly.com/uploads/4/1/7/1/41712563/7959856_orig.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 In food production, feed conversion ratio is the food input in grams 21
Applications
needed to produce a certain biomass. It is a measure of an animal’s
efficiency in converting feed mass into desired output. For example,
A1: Conversion if 150 grams of feed are needed to produce 120 grams of mass, the
ratio in
ratio is 1.25.
sustainable food
production
practices.

Key Terms FCR (for a specified time period =

Productivity
mass of food eaten(g)/Desired output (g)
Biomass
(The lower the FCR, the more efficient the
Feed Conversion system is.)
Ratio
https://www.aquaculturealliance.org/what-we-do/why-it-matters/
IB BIO – C.2 22

Applications

A1: Conversion
ratio in
sustainable food
production
practices.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Feed Conversion
Ratio
https://www.aquaculturealliance.org/what-we-do/why-it-matters/
IB BIO – C.2 As shown in the graph, some livestock have a significantly higher 23

Applications
ratio than others. The consideration of conversion ratios is
necessary when establishing sustainable food production practices.
A1: Conversion
ratio in
sustainable food
production
practices.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Conversion
Ratio
https://salmonfarmscience.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/fcrs1.png
IB BIO – C.2 Farmed fish have a low ratio as a result of being fed protein meal 24

Applications
instead of plant matter (like cattle). Since this is easier to digest,
less waste is produced and conversion to biomass is more efficient.
A1: Conversion
ratio in
sustainable food
production
practices.

Key Terms

Productivity

Biomass

Conversion
Ratio
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fish_Farm_in_Armenia_71416125958_05.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 1. Define trophic level. 25

REVIEW 2. Define food web.

3. Outline the reason species can occupy multiple trophic levels.

4. Define productivity.

5. Differentiate between primary and secondary productivity.

6. Outline the effect of respiration rate on biomass accumulation in

consumers.
IB BIO – C.2 26
• Bozeman Science: Energy Flow in Ecosystems
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lnAKICtJIA4

VIDEOS • Feed Conversion Efficiency Trial

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6HSTxrfHBo
C.2 – B – Ecosystems & Nutrients
IB BIO – C.2 Recall that an ecosystem is a community made of up living 28
organisms (biotic) and their non-living surroundings (abiotic) that
interact as a system.
INTRO

https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/science-update/nursery-function-ecosystem-services-and-biodiversity
IB BIO – C.2 Climate is a property that 29

Understandings
describes the prevailing weather
conditions in an area over
U4: The type of a long period of time.
stable
ecosystem that
It results from the
will emerge in
an area is interaction of variables
predictable including precipitation
based on and temperature.
climate.

Key Terms

Climate

https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/icelights/2012/03/modeling-arctic-climate
IB BIO – C.2 30
The type of stable ecosystem that
Understandings
will emerge in an area is
predictable based on climate.
U4: The type of
stable Some factors to consider include:
ecosystem that
will emerge in • Temperature impacts overall
an area is
predictable productivity by influencing
based on metabolic rates of organisms
climate. as well as processes like
transpiration.

Key Terms • Precipitation influences

Climate • Processes such as
photosynthesis and
decomposition.

https://media.wired.com/photos/596fa06981c49267751c03de/master/w_2400,c_limit/Calbuco-Volcano-TA-472312286.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 For example, high levels of precipitation and high temperature 31

Understandings
results in rainforests with high productivity. Likewise, areas with
very little precipitation results in a desert ecosystem.
U4: The type of
stable
ecosystem that
will emerge in
an area is
predictable
based on
climate.

Key Terms

Climate

https://previews.123rf.com/images/leungchopan/leungchopan1203/leungchopan120300854/12985103-tropical-rainforest-landscape.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 Climographs are graphic representations that show temperature 32

Skills
and precipitation levels in an area. For example, the climograph
belows shows average monthly conditions in a Chilean river basin.
S2: Analysis of
a climograph
showing the
relationship
between
temperature,
rainfall and the
type of
ecosystem.

Key Terms

Climograph

http://www.basin-info.net/images/imperial/Fig3.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 Below is a modified climograph that shows the most likely stable 33

Skills
ecosystem that will form given a set of conditions. Keep in mind,
though, that other variables affect the ecosystem type that forms.
S2: Analysis of
a climograph
showing the
relationship
between
temperature,
rainfall and the
type of
ecosystem.

Key Terms

Climograph

https://www.philpoteducation.com/pluginfile.php/1357/mod_book/chapter/1322/14.1.2d.png
IB BIO – C.2 Ecosystems can be thought of as closed systems. These types of 34

Understandings
systems exchange energy with their surroundings, but not matter.

U5: In closed
ecosystems
energy but not
matter is
exchanged with
the
surroundings.

Key Terms

Closed
System Other system types include:
• Open system – both energy • Isolated system – neither
and matter are exchange with energy nor matter is
surroundings. exchanged
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed_system#/media/File:Diagram_Systems.png
IB BIO – C.2 In closed ecosystems, energy usually enters in the form of light and 35
Understandings
leaves in the form of reflected light and heat. Nutrients and energy
converted to organic matter cycle within the ecosystem.
U5: In closed
ecosystems
energy but not
matter is
exchanged with
the
surroundings.

Key Terms

Closed
System

https://biotoenhancebio.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/ecosystem-closed-loop-system.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 Nutrient cycling describes how nutrients are moved in an 36

Applications
ecosystem. Cycling involves living and non-living components and
includes biological, geological and chemical processes.
A2:
Consideration of
one example of
how humans
interfere with
nutrient cycling.

Key Terms

Nutrient
Cycle
Substances moved include:
- Carbon - Hydrogen - Nitrogen
- Oxygen - Phosphorus
http://www.waterman.hku.hk/education/slide.aspx?code=fl4jv
IB BIO – C.2 Human activies can interfere with nutrient cycling by artificially 37

Applications
accelerating the movement of substances. For example, the nitrogen
cycle has been largely affected by humans in the past century.
A2:
Consideration of
one example of
how humans
interfere with
nutrient cycling.

Key Terms

Nutrient
Cycle

https://i1.wp.com/www.naturalorganicfamilies.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/20160222-nitrogen-cycle.jpg?resize=1024%2C788
IB BIO – C.2 The use of fertilizers in agriculture has significantly increased 38

Applications
nitrogen inputs. Excess nitrogen runs off from fields in rain and
builds up in bodies of water, causing eutrophication.
A2:
Consideration of
one example of
how humans
interfere with
nutrient cycling.

Key Terms

Nutrient
Cycle

https://blogs.umass.edu/natsci397a-eross/files/2014/12/Untitled2.png
IB BIO – C.2 Gersmehl diagrams are used to show the storage and flow of 39

Skills
nutrients in terrestrial ecosystems.

S3: Diagrams use three types of

Construction of storage (or pools):
Gersmehl
diagrams to • Soil – mineral material
show the inter-
relationships on the surface of the Earth
between
nutrient stores • Litter – organic material
and flows. found in soil, including
leaves and humus
Key Terms
• Biomass – dry organic mass
Gersmehl
that makes up organisms
Diagram

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Nutrient_cycle.svg/2000px-Nutrient_cycle.svg.png
IB BIO – C.2 In Gersmehl diagrams, arrows are used to represent flows between 40
Skills
each of the pools. The thickness of each arrow indicates the rate of
nutrient flow and each can represent multiple processes.
S3:
Construction of
Gersmehl
diagrams to
show the inter-
relationships
between
nutrient stores
and flows.

Key Terms

Gersmehl
Diagram

https://www.slideshare.net/ecumene/ecosystems-3-nutrient-cycle-presentation
IB BIO – C.2 Label your diagram in your worksheet to use as a key. 41

Skills

S3:
Construction of
Gersmehl
diagrams to
show the inter-
relationships
between
nutrient stores
and flows.

Key Terms

Gersmehl
Diagram
IB BIO – C.2 Gersmehl Diagram: Taiga 42

Skills Taiga is the largest biome (besides ocean) and is characterized by

coniferous forests. Because of low temperatures that slow
S3:
decomposition, most nutrients are stored in litter.
Construction of
Gersmehl
diagrams to
show the inter-
relationships
between
nutrient stores
and flows.

Key Terms

Gersmehl
Diagram

https://jennycontreras.weebly.com/taiga.html
IB BIO – C.2 Gersmehl Diagram: Taiga 43

Skills Taiga is the largest biome (besides ocean) and is characterized by

coniferous forests. Because of low temperatures that slow
S3:
decomposition, most nutrients are stored in litter.
Construction of
Gersmehl
diagrams to
show the inter-
relationships
between
nutrient stores
and flows.

Key Terms

Gersmehl
Diagram

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/biokc-150104092059-conversion-gate01/95/bioknowledgy-c2-communities-and-ecosystems-10-1024.jpg?cb=1420384957
IB BIO – C.2 Gersmehl Diagram: Desert 44

Skills Deserts are characterized by low levels of rainfall. As a result, most

nutrients are stored in the soil and very little in biomass or litter.
S3:
Construction of
Gersmehl
diagrams to
show the inter-
relationships
between
nutrient stores
and flows.

Key Terms

Gersmehl
Diagram

https://tws9g6.files.wordpress.com/2015/04/desert-29-1.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 Gersmehl Diagram: Desert 45

Skills Deserts are characterized by low levels of rainfall. As a result, most

nutrients are stored in the soil and very little in biomass or litter.
S3:
Construction of
Gersmehl
diagrams to
show the inter-
relationships
between
nutrient stores
and flows.

Key Terms

Gersmehl
Diagram

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/biokc-150104092059-conversion-gate01/95/bioknowledgy-c2-communities-and-ecosystems-10-1024.jpg?cb=1420384957
IB BIO – C.2 46

Skills

S3:
Construction of
Gersmehl
diagrams to
show the inter-
relationships
between
nutrient stores
and flows.

Key Terms

Gersmehl
Diagram

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/biokc-150104092059-conversion-gate01/95/bioknowledgy-c2-communities-and-ecosystems-10-1024.jpg?cb=1420384957
IB BIO – C.2 47

Skills

S3:
Construction of
Gersmehl
diagrams to
show the inter-
relationships
between
nutrient stores
and flows.

Key Terms

Gersmehl
Diagram
IB BIO – C.2 48

Skills

S3:
Construction of
Gersmehl
diagrams to
show the inter-
relationships
between
nutrient stores
and flows.

Key Terms

Gersmehl
Diagram
IB BIO – C.2 Gersmehl Diagram: Rainforest 49

Skills Rainforests are characterized by high levels of precipitation and

biodiversity. Due to warm temperatures, decomposition occurs
S3:
quickly and most nutrients are stored in biomass.
Construction of
Gersmehl
diagrams to
show the inter-
relationships
between
nutrient stores
and flows.

Key Terms

Gersmehl
Diagram

https://www.wabash.edu/images2/photo_album/1576/rain%20forest1a.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 Gersmehl Diagram: Rainforest 50

Skills Rainforests are characterized by high levels of precipitation and

biodiversity. Due to warm temperatures, decomposition occurs
S3:
quickly and most nutrients are stored in biomass.
Construction of
Gersmehl
diagrams to
show the inter-
relationships
between
nutrient stores
and flows.

Key Terms

Gersmehl
Diagram

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/biokc-150104092059-conversion-gate01/95/bioknowledgy-c2-communities-and-ecosystems-10-1024.jpg?cb=1420384957
IB BIO – C.2 1. Define climate.
51

REVIEW 2. Outline the role of climate in determining the type

of ecosystem in an area.
3. Describe a climograph and outline its use in
predicting the type of stable ecosystem in an area.
4. Define closed system.
5. Define nutrient cycling.
6. Outline an example of human activity impacting a
nutrient cycle.
7. Compare and contrast the Gersmehl diagrams for
taigas, deserts and tropical rainforests.
C.2 – C – Succession
IB BIO – C.2 In ecology, succession is a set of changes that transform an 53

Skills
ecosystem over time. Changes result from complex interactions
with the environment and involve both biotic and abiotic components.
S4: Analysis of
data showing
primary
succession.

Key Terms

Succession

http://upsc-tnpsc-gkhub.blogspot.com/2016/10/ecological-succession.html
IB BIO – C.2 Primary succession occurs in previously uninhabitated areas like bare54
Skills
rock. Initially, only organisms that can live on the surface are
present and are the pioneer species (bacteria, lichens, moss, etc.)
S4: Analysis of
data showing
primary
succession.

Key Terms

Succession

Primary
Succession

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/AP_Biology_-_Primary_Succession_Drawing.svg
IB BIO – C.2 Over time, pioneer species break down rock and produce soil. 55

Skills
Species that grow in thin soil are then able to better able to colonize
the area and further break down the rock and form deeper soil.
S4: Analysis of
data showing
primary
succession.

Key Terms

Succession

Primary
Succession

http://www.historylines.net/img/Summer_2010/big/Moss_Lichen_Tobermory.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 Larger plants like shrubs then colonize the deeper soil and eventually56
Skills
trees are able to grow. Consumer and decomposer populations
change in response to new producer populations.
S4: Analysis of
data showing
primary
succession.

Key Terms

Succession

Primary
Succession

https://tundrailes.weebly.com/uploads/5/1/5/8/51587375/5608143_orig.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 Secondary succession occurs in places where events, like forest fires,57
Understandings
initiate a change in conditions. Such disturbances influence the
structure and rate of change in the ecosystem.
U6: Disturbance
influences the
structure and
rate of change
within
ecosystems.

Key Terms

Succession

Secondary
Succession

https://ahbelab.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/forest-ecology-succession.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 After the disturbance, productivity, biomass accumulation and 58

Understandings
species diversity rapidly increase. At the climax stage, changes
continue, but at a slower rate as the ecosystem is stable.
U6: Disturbance
influences the
structure and
rate of change
within
ecosystems.

Key Terms

Succession

Secondary
Succession

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/21/28/96/2128966f211c4773a6bbfc3315bcfaff.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 Examples of environmental 59

Skills
disturbances that can result in
secondary succession include:
S5:
Investigation • Renewal of a crop after
into the effect of
harvesting
an environment
disturbance on
an ecosystem. • Renewal of a forest after
logging

• Volcanic eruptions

Key Terms • Renewal after disease

Succession • Floods

• Destruction of plant population

by pests

http://ecolibrary.org/images/full_image/Succession_primary_on_lava_flow_Hawaii_DP430.jpg
IB BIO – C.2 1. Define succession.
60

REVIEW 2. Outline events in primary succession.

3. Differentiate between primary and secondary

succession.

4. List three disturbances that could potentially result

in secondary succession.
IB BIO – C.2 61
• Stages of Primary Succession
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLpc71YOtcE

VIDEOS • CrashCourse: Ecological Succession

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZKIHe2LDP8
IB BIO – C.2 62
Practical 5 – Setting up a sealed mesocosm.

Practical • Take your containers and set up your basic

mesocosm.
• Add potting soil a few inches up and add
some of the seed potting mix on top.
• Add a small amount of grass seeds

• Add enough water to dampen the soil and

seal your mesocosm. Place it on the side
counter near the windows.
IB BIO – C.2 63
GUIDANCE

GUIDANCE • Examples of aspects to investigate in the ecosystem could

be species diversity, nutrient cycling, water movement,
erosion, leaf area index, among others.