COMMUNICATION

MODELS
ARISTOTLE’S MODEL
Speaker Speech Audience Effect

Occasion

• There is no feedback.
• Golden rule to excel in public speaking, seminars, and, lecture.

Three elements of Aristotle’s model of communication:

1. ETHOS
2. PATHOS
3. LOGOS
ARISTOTLE’S MODEL

CRITICISMS

1. It is considered as one-way communication process.

2. Exploring human nature is not a criterion in this feedback.
3. Used in public speaking.
4. It makes the communication process useless.
5. Does not include barriers and noise.
BERLO’S MODEL
Communication operates on SMCR.
SMCR stands as Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver.
BERLO’S MODEL
SENDER CHANNEL
Factors related to or affecting the sender: Factors related to or affecting the channel:
1. communication 1. hearing
2. attitude 2. seeing
3. knowledge 3. touching
4. social systems 4. smelling
5. culture 5. tasting

MESSAGE RECEIVER
Factors related to or affecting the message:
1. structure of the message
2. content
3. treatment
4. elements of the message
5. code
BERLO’S MODEL

ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
1. Straightforward 1. Does not consider noise or any
2. Still used in purer forms of limitations
communication 2. Complete absence of feedback
3. Forms a basis for higher
communication models
Shannon and Weavers “Mathematical” Model

One-way linear model

Received
Message Signal Signal Message

Information Transmitter Receiver Destination

Noise
Source

Introduced the element of noise – in technical aspect, noise is anything that disrupts the
transmission of a signal; in human communication context, noise is anything that disrupts the
smooth flow of communication.
Shannon and Weavers “Mathematical” Model

ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
1. Most of the elements are 1. Very little importance of
considered in this model feedback
2. Gives mathematical aspect 2. Noise was a missing element,
which was added later
Osgood and Schramm’s Model
• Circular or cyclical model that consists of all the essential; elements of communication.
• It suggests that communication is a two-way path with the message continually passing between the
sender and receiver.
Osgood and Schramm’s Model

ADVANTAGES
1. Allows both the sender and receiver to compose and send it to the party
2. Noise helps to understand the problems which may occur during the decoding of
the message by the sender.
3. Since there is a feedback system in this model of communication, it makes it easier
for the sender to understand if the message has been received, interpreted, and
comprehended by the receiver or not.
Osgood and Schramm’s Model

LIMITATIONS
1. The model is based on the assumption that encoding and decoding do not require
any external assistance and takes place independently and on its own. This is not
the case in the process of communication.
2. This model cannot deal with complex communication processes and a
communication model that has different levels in it.
LASWELL’S MODEL
• Developed by Harold D. Laswell, an American
Political Scientist and Communication theorist.
• Also called linear model of communication
(one-way process within communication).
Three functions for communication:
1. Surveillance of the environment
2. Correlation of components of society
3. Cultural transmission between generation

Who? Says With what

What? In which effect?
To whom?
channel?
HELICAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
• Developed in 1967 by Frank Dance, which he originally named “Dance’s Helix Model of
Communication”.
• Considered a transactional model of communication.

The model views communication as:

1. Cyclical
2. Contextual (Influenced by time and experience)
3. Continuous
4. Non-Repetitive; and
5. Accumulative (getting increasingly more complex and
‘knowledgeable’)
HELICAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Why A Cone Shape?

There are two benefits of the cone shape.

1. It shows that communication is increasingly
complex and accumulative.
2. It shows that all complex communication comes
from simple origins.
HELICAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
ADVANTAGES
1. Can be used to represent an individual communication event between two people, or
one person’s growing communication skills over a long period of time.
2. Takes into account the dimension of time in ways that most other models fail to do.
3. The model takes into account the ways learning throughout a cycle of
communication leads to increasing complexity.
4. There is acknowledgement that every experience impacts upon our future actions.
HELICAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

LIMITATIONS
1. There is never a backward step.
2. The model assumes continuity and does not account for moments when there are
breaks in communication.
3. It is unclear
4. Somewhat ambiguous due to its abstract nature
5. Apparently out of use today
NEWCOMB’S MODEL
X
• Takes the shape of a triangle
• According to it, communication Topic
maintains equilibrium within the social
system.
• Here A and B are communicator and
receiver. They may be individuals, or
management and union, or government
and people. X is part of their social
environment. ABX is a system, which
means that its internal relations are
interdependent. Message Message
B A
Receiver Sender
KINCAID’S MODEL
• Also known as Convergence Model of Communication
• Was developed to provide a general model of communication that would overcome the criticisms
and shortcomings of the previous models

Seven biases associated with these linear models:

1. A view of communication as a linear, one-way act usually vertical, rather than cyclical, two-way
process over time.
2. A source bias based on dependency rather than on the relationship of those who communicate and
their fundamental interdependency.
3. A tendency to focus on the objects of communication as if they existed in a vacuum, isolated from
their context.
4. A tendency to focus on the message per se at the expense of silence and the punctuation and timing
of messages.
KINCAID’S MODEL

5. A tendency to consider the primary purpose of communication to be persuasion rather than mutual
understanding, agreement, and collective action.

6. A tendency to concentrate on the psychological effects of communication on separate individuals

rather than the social effects and the relationships among individuals.

7. A belief in one-way mechanistic causation rather than mutual causation which characterizes human
information systems that is fundamentally cybernetic.
KINCAID’S MODEL
This model represented communication as

• A process rather than a single action.

• Sharing or exchange of information rather
than one-way transmission.
• Two or more participants in a dialogue.
• A means to clarify the confusion between
information, knowledge, messages, symbols,
and meaning.
• A self-correcting feedback process.
 COMMUNICATION
AND GLOBALIZATION
IMPACT OF CULTURAL AND GLOBAL ISSUES ON COMMUNICATION
 COMMUNICATION
AND GLOBALIZATION
IMPACT OF CULTURAL AND GLOBAL ISSUES ON COMMUNICATION

The Martial Law EDSA People

Declaration Revolution
The Martial Law Declaration
• Martial Law was declared by former President Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines last September
23, 1972.
• Presidential Decree 1081
• MEDIA HAD BEEN CONTROLLED

“The papers didn't come that morning. TV and

radio stations suddenly stopped broadcasting,”
said by Former Senate President Jovita Salonga.
The Martial Law Declaration
“The military took over public utilities, shut down Congress, suppressed the media (except those owned
by the Marcoses and their relatives), imposed a curfew, and restricted travel out of the country. Any
civilian caught with a firearm faced the death penalty”.

“Former Philippine Constabulary-Integrated National Police (PC-INP) Director General Ramon

Montano recalled how the arrests were conducted. We were organized into a special task forces. The
first order was to close the media,” – excerpt from Marcos, Martial Law: Never Again by Raissa
Robles, 2016

The country had been stifled by:

• controlling media outlets

• imposing a curfew
• shutting down Congress
The Martial Law Declaration
“Many brought their radio sets to repair to the
shop, thinking they were out of order,” by
Crispin Maslog in 2014, a Filipino Journalist
A society that was used to a culture of democracy
and free speech was silenced by the proclamation
of one man who wanted to hold on to power for as
long as he could. Stories and information were
passed, rumors spread and abound, and government
machinery tried to suppress the unrest (Suarez,
et.al, 2018).
EDSA People Revolution
• On February 25, 1986, the people power revolution took place in the Philippines that resulted to the
oust of former President Ferdinand Marcos.

• Manila Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin played a key role by calling the people over Radyo Veritas to
gather in EDSA for protection of the rebel soldiers.

• Soldiers was led by then Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and Armed Forces Vice Chief of Staff
General Fidel Ramos

• June Keithley with her brothers Paolo and Gabe Mercado, continued broadcasting vital information
over Radyo Bandido at a secret location after Radyo Veritas was captured.
EDSA People Revolution
Traditional media outlets that played crucial role:

Television Radio Newspaper Magazine

EDSA People Revolution

• Handog ng Pilipino sa Mundo, composed and performed by well-known Filipino Singers on TV and
the Radio.

• After the “People Power” was known globally, similar powerful revolutions followed in Poland,
Germany, and Czechoslovakia.
 COMMUNICATION
AND GLOBALIZATION
IMPACT OF CULTURAL AND GLOBAL ISSUES ON COMMUNICATION

The Martial Law EDSA People

Declaration Revolution
 COMMUNICATION
AND GLOBALIZATION
IMPACT OF CULTURAL AND GLOBAL ISSUES ON COMMUNICATION

Survival to nature
Globalization

Stereotyping,
Advertisements in
discrimination and
media
ethnocentrism
Globalization

• Globalization is a popular term that describes how and why the world continues to evolve in the
ways that it does.

• Refers to the “processes through which local and regional ideas, products, and practices are
transformed into worldwide ideas, products and practices,” (Griffin and Bone , 2014).
Survival to nature

• Survival to nature is one of global issues that many people share around.

• “Think globally, act locally” - served as primer to help local farmers by patronizing our own
products instead of buying imported goods, and even promote our products abroad.
Advertisements in media

• Influence individuals as the industries always pay attention to consumers’ aspirations and worries

• Accommodate campaigns on issues like gender equality, respect for the elderly, employment for
the disabled (or “differently-abled” as some advocates for political correctness would refer to
group), and understanding the refugees crisis.
Stereotyping, discrimination and ethnocentrism

• Stereotypes - mental images or pictures that we believe on; shortcuts (positive or negative) that
guide reactions

• Discrimination - the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things,

especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex.

• Ethnocentrism - tendency to see one’s own culture as superior to all; this lacks cultural flexibility;
(experiencing great anxiety when interacting with persons from different cultures)

• Media heighten the awareness for injustices brought on by stereotyping, discrimination, and
ethnocentrism.
C
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communication refers
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common habits,
While a person's
culture may naturally
HOW
AFFECTS
CU

to the influence of beliefs, and behavioral make them good COMMUNIC

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cultural traits on this
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process. collection of these effective.
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R
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 C
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While a person's
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HOW
AFFECTS
CULTURE

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R
E
 C
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While a person's
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HOW
AFFECTS
CULTURE

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T
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U
R
E
 C HOW CULTURE AFFECTS COMMUNICATION

U 1. It helps you to identify the cultural basis of beliefs. You could come

L
person's
aturally
across attitudes about things like gender roles, attire, communication,
indulgence, loyalty, and trustworthiness when speaking or
communicating
good
T
, it may
m less
2. It helps you to identify cultural behaviors. You're more likely to spot
culturally-derived behaviors.

U 3. It improves your skill set for working with multinationals.

Understanding how cultural differences affect communication might

R help you be more prepared for work in the many various cultures that
exist today.

E
 C HOW CULTURE AFFECTS COMMUNICATION

U
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person's
aturally
4. It makes you a better communicator. You build more effective
communication methods as a result of your understanding of how culture
good
T
, it may
m less
affects communication, then you improve your communication skills.

U 5. It helps you to progress in your career. When faced with

communication problems caused by cultural differences, you are more
likely to take corrective action.

R
E
INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
“‘Intercultural Communication’ is one of those terms that everybody uses, and in many
different and not necessarily compatible ways.” (Intercultural Communication: A Critical
Introduction. Ingrid Piller. 2017)

“Loosely, an umbrella term for interaction between people from different cultural or
subcultural backgrounds intended to lead to shared understandings of messages.” (Oxford
Reference)

“Intercultural communication is a discipline that studies communication across different

cultures and social groups, or how culture affects communication.” (Wikipedia)

“Intercultural communication is the study and practice of communication across cultural

contexts.” (Milton J. Bennett, Ph.D. Intercultural Development Research Institute)

“Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process,

in which people from different cultures create shared meanings.” (Lustig & Koester,
Intercultural competence 2007)
PURPOSE OF INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
On a personal level, Intercultural Communication can help us understand our own
preferences, strengths and weaknesses when it comes to communicating and how these can
help or hinder us when communicating across cultures.

On a wider level, Intercultural Communication can help us understand all manner of things
about ourselves as human beings from how we create meaning to the mechanics of the brain
(neuroscience) to the use of language(s) for social cohesion.
IMPORTANCE OF INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
When we investigate the cultural influences on communication, we gain a deeper
understanding of both areas. Additionally, it aids in expanding our knowledge of who we are
as individuals and as a society.

Understanding our communication styles, habits, and tendencies and how they may serve or
work against us when interacting with others from other cultural backgrounds is a valuable
personal benefit of studying intercultural communication.

When seen in a broader context, intercultural communication can shed light on a wide range
of human experiences, from the process of defining the workings of the brain to the power of
languages in bringing people together.
BARRIERS TO INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
1. ANXIETY - Anxiety is usually defined as a state of human condition where a person has a
feeling of unease and nervousness. It is even sometimes associated with the feeling of an
unrealistic fear. Anxiety usually occurs when a person usually comes across his or her first
cross cultural interaction.

2. ASSUMPTION OF SIMILARITIES - Sometimes people assume that two cultures are not
different, but are similar in their nature.

3. ETHNOCENTRISM - Ethnocentrism is a perception that an individual has for someone

else’s culture and heritage as being inferior to his or her own culture and heritage (Coopman
and Lull).
BARRIERS TO INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
4. STEREOTYPE - Stereotypes are oversimplified ideas about groups of people. Stereotypes
can be based on race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation — almost any characteristic.

5. PREJUDICE - Prejudice is a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely
on one’s membership in a particular social group, such as gender, race, ethnicity, nationality,
social class, religion, sexual orientation, profession, and many more (Allport, 1954; Brown,
2010).

6. LANGUAGE - Language is an exchange gate of communication. It refers to a source which

exchanges values, ideas, and thoughts between two exchange groups.
WHAT ARE INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION SKILLS?

1. SELF-AWARENESS - The key to understanding how other cultures communicate is to

understand how you, yourself communicate and how your culture has shaped you.

2. EMPATHY - Empathy is critical to Intercultural Communication as it helps you put

yourself in someone else’s shoes and understand what they may be going through.

3. RESPECT - Respect means that you may not agree or like everything about someone else
or their culture, but that you acknowledge their right to express themselves, their culture or
values.
WHAT ARE INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION SKILLS?

4. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE - Intercultural Communication requires intuition and the

ability to move beyond words.

5. ADAPTABILITY - Intercultural Communication gives us the insights and tools we need to

be flexible and adapt our ways.

6. PATIENCE - Patience is necessary for effective Intercultural Communication as it

moderates expectations and emotions.

7. POSITIVITY - When engaging with people from different cultures, it’s always important to
keep things positive.
IMPROVING INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Acquire cultural Observe the culture

knowledge

Speak to people Take in what to hear and Watch international

see shows
MULTICULTURAL
 MULTICULTURAL

Multicultural refers to a society that contains several cultural or ethnic groups. People live
alongside one another, but each cultural group does not necessarily have engaging interactions
with each other.

The connection between culture and communication is revealing, especially since our culture
influences what we think about ourselves and others.
 Difference in the Working World

Identity diversity - people who come from different races and religions.

Cognitive diversity - people who come from different outlooks and training.
 Difference in the Working World

Melting Pot Philosophy

According to that theory, when individuals immigrated, they lost or gave up their original
heritage and became Americans.

Philosophy of Cultural Pluralism

Allowing cultures to maintain differences while coexisting in broader society, replaced the
melting pot philosophy. Believe in respect for uniqueness and tolerance for difference. In a
multicultural society, every group will do things differently, and that’s okay.
 Difference in the Working World

Multicultural communication skills are crucial. As the world is becoming a smaller and
smaller place, differences that occur on both our professional and personal paths are
increasingly bigger and more noticeable.
 The Cost of Cultural Ignorance

Cultural misunderstanding often lead to lost opportunities and

increased levels of tension between people.
 BARRIERS TO INTERNATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
1. ETHNOCENTRISM - refers to the beliefs that a person’s culture is much better than any other
group’s culture.
2. STEROTYPES - mental images or pictures deep rooted in our heads that guide our reactions to
others.
3. PREJUDICE - describes how we feel about a group of people whom, more likely than not, we
do not personally know.
4. ASSUMED SIMILARIETIES - a baseless, unreasonable refusal to see cultural differences
where they exist.
5. ANXIETY - fear or apprehension associated with either real or anticipated communication with
people from another cultural group. The fear is often caused by differences in language ability,
verbal and nonverbal communication styles, and expression of emotions. Some experience the
feelings of impatience, frustration, and suspicion while communicating or even in anticipation of
the interaction.
 BARRIERS TO INTERNATIONAL
COMMUNICATION

“Communication and culture are inextricably intertwined. Indeed, culture itself is one form of
communication. Consequently, the study of cultural differences and similarities so essential to
international business success is largely inseparable from the study of international business
communication” (Victor, nd).
 WHAT MAKES YOU CULTURAL?

“The degree to which they know, identify with, and internalize

more than one culture”
 EXAMPLES OF MULTICULTURAL

Chinese-Canadians
Turkish-German
Filipino-American

MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY
“The coexistence of different cultures within a single society, and to the policies and practices that
promote this coexistence. Multiculturalism involves not only tolerance of cultural diversity but an
active engagement with it, in order to promote social harmony and prevent conflict” (Anthony
Giddens, 2006).
 EXAMPLES OF MULTICULTURAL

• Normalization of Diverse Cultural Holidays

• Multilingual Populations
• Religious Diversity
• Diverse Political Representation
• Non-Discriminatory Immigration
 CRITICISM OF MULTICULTURALISM

Leads to social fragmentation. Reinforces cultural stereotypes and

perpetuates inequality

In our globalized world, most societies are mosaic of cultures and must
inevitably find ways to accommodate differences.
 CRITICISM OF MULTICULTURALISM

ADVANTAGES
• Education
• Accommodate a more comprehensive and broader version of the past events
• Professional
• Mix of cultural experiences helps in problem-solving, and can create a strong team
• Multinational Companies
• In service industry giants, diverse population employed by these companies in different
countries helps them capture global markets, increase customer base across nations, and earns
profit easily.
• Skilled Immigrant Labor
• Multiethnic countries are home to majority of immigrants, a significant population of it being
a highly educated skilled workforce
 CRITICISM OF MULTICULTURALISM

DISADVANTAGES
• Education
• Children from ethnic minorities or immigrant families would take time in getting accustomed
to a new environment
• Professional
• Multicultural workforce can be very demanding
• Fear of Influence
• May inculcate a fear among individuals or ethnic groups of losing their original ethnic
identities or lifestyle
• Risk of Social Conflict
• Possibility of social conflicts due to differences in religious beliefs and practices, ethnic
rituals, or certain ways of life that may cause a rift between two or more groups
 IMPORTANCE OF MULTICULTURAL
SOCIETY
It takes individuals away from social issues and helps to effectively resolve disputes. And it
improves healthy human relations and protects equal human rights for all.
 IMPORTANCE OF MULTICULTURAL
SOCIETY

According to Brian Tracy, “Communication is a skill that you can

learn. It’s like riding a bicycle or typing. If you’re willing to work at it,
you can rapidly improve that quality of every part of your life”.
CROSS CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
CROSS CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
Cross-cultural communication can be defined as a dialogue or any kind of interaction (both verbal and non-
verbal) between people of different nationalities

Cross-cultural communication theory explores how people of different countries, ethnicities, and cultures can
work together to communicate most effectively. This means overcoming language differences, understanding
multicultural nonverbal cues, and working together to understand how to best convey ideas across cultural
divides.

Given the prevalence of remote work and the continued globalization of the economy, cross-cultural
communication is likely to become more important than ever in the years ahead.

What Is Cross-Cultural Communication?

 Why Is Cross-Cultural Communication
Important?

Cross-cultural communication allows people to avoid miscommunication and misinterpretation, instead

opening up the possibility of fruitful relationships across previously daunting cultural barriers. This form of
multicultural communication enables the free exchange of information among people of vastly different
backgrounds. Knowing how to converse across cultures is useful in both your personal life and within the
business communication process.

Cultural differences might present themselves even within a specific country or territory, not just
internationally.
 3 Basic Elements of Cross-Cultural
Communication
1. Language: Verbal communication is how people most explicitly convey information
from one person to another, so knowing how to speak different languages greatly
empowers people to connect across cultural divides. Once you overcome language
barriers, you remove the greatest obstacle to free-flowing communication. A
conversational level of fluency might be all that is necessary.

2. Nonverbal communication: Sometimes body language—such as eye contact or facial expressions—might

be all it takes to communicate certain information across cultures. Still, nonverbal communication often takes
on different meanings among different cultural groups. For instance, an inoffensive hand gesture in one
culture might be offensive in another.

3. Social norms: Different cultural norms lead to different communication styles. For example, in high-context
cultures (such as in Japan and China), people talk around a subject gingerly rather than take a more blunt
approach. By contrast, low-context cultures (such as in the United States and Germany) generally prefer more
direct forms of communication.
Be friendly - Though people of different cultural backgrounds might characterize the specific actions of
friendliness differently, approaching intercultural communication with a friendly attitude is easy to appreciate
universally.
Educate yourself - Try your best to increase your cultural understanding on your own.
Embrace humility - Surmounting cultural barriers might lead to embarrassing miscommunications or
unfortunate misinterpretations at times, so remain humble, forgiving, and open-minded in these
circumstances.
Keep an eye out for unconscious biases - You might believe you have no preexisting points of view about
various cultures, but keep a vigilant eye out for signs you might be acting out of prejudice or bias.

Remain adaptable - Keep an open mind in any work environment or situation in

which you might need to engage in cross-cultural communication.

Effective Cross-Cultural Communication

Strategies
1. Body Language and Space - Body language and Space accounts for around 55% of communication. In
situations where there is a language barrier, that percentage becomes even higher. In some cultures, eye
contact is important, whereas in a few cultures eye contact is disrespectful. For example, in the US, it’s
common decency to look someone in the eye when they’re talking to you. In Indonesia, the opposite is true.
In fact, maintaining direct eye contact is seen as disrespectful.

2. Addressing People - Some cultures do this more formally than others. For example, in Thailand, it’s
common for workers to address their bosses as ‘father’ or ‘mother’ when business relations are particularly
good.
3. Cultural & Language Barriers - When speaking to people across different cultures,
you need to be aware of a few words and phrases that can't be directly translated into
other languages.

Examples of Cultural Differences

GLOBAL COMMUNICATION
GLOBAL COMMUNICATION
Definition and the Five-step Process Cultural Sensitivity

Examples Importance of Cultural Sensitivity

Importance Intercultural Sensitivity

Impacts of Global Communication Six Stages of DMIS

Definition and the Five-step Process

Global Communication is the process of creating and exchanging information across various environments
and cultural contexts.

Five-step Process:
1. A person or an organization in one country sends a message
2. The message is encoded
3. The message travels through a channel or medium.
4. The receiver in another country decodes the message.
5. the recipient receives the message.
Examples

Global advertisements
Political speeches
Journalistic news stories
Social media posts
Press releases
Books and traditional print publications
What is the importance of global
communication?
Impacts of Global Communication

• Increased business opportunities

• Fewer cultural barriers
• Global village
 Cultural Sensitivity

It is an attitude and way of behaving in which you are aware of and acknowledge
cultural differences; it is crucial for such global goals as world peace and economic
growth as well as for effective interpersonal communication (Franklin & Mizell,
1995).

Effective communication happens when people who are different in gender, race, or
nationality are aware of cultural sensitivity.

Four key Concepts to improve our cultural sensitivity:

1. Awareness
2. Attitude
3. Knowledge
4. Skills
 Importance of Cultural Sensitivity

WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF CULTURAL

SENSITIVITY?
 Intercultural Sensitivity

According to (Chen and Starosta, 1997), intercultural sensitivity can be defined as

“an individual's ability to develop emotion towards understanding and appreciating
cultural differences that promotes appropriate and effective behavior in intercultural
communication”.

What is Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS)?

DMIS was created by Dr. Milton Benett. This model was created as a basic outline to
explain the reactions that people have to cultural differences.
 Six Stages of DMIS
1. Denial of Cultural Difference - is the state in which one’s own culture is experienced as
the only real one.
2. Defense against Cultural Difference - is the state in which one’s own culture (or an
adopted culture) is experienced as the only good one.
3. Minimization of Cultural Difference - is the state in which elements of one’s own
cultural world view are experienced as universal.
4. Acceptance of Cultural Difference - is the state in which one’s own culture is
experienced as just one of a number of equally complex worldviews.
5. Adaptation to Cultural Difference - is the state in which the experience of another
culture yields perception and behavior appropriate to that culture.
6. Integration of Cultural Difference - is the state in which one’s experience of self is
expanded to include the movement in and out of different cultural worldviews.