INTRODUCTION TO PESTS AND DISEASES IN FORESTRY

YEAR2 FOR&AF 2022/2023

By
NYIRUMURINGA
Objective : At the end of this course, the students will be introduced to:

1. Definition of pest and disease in forestry.

2. difference between a pest and disease.
3.incidence of pest and disease in forests of Rwanda, East Africa, etc.
4. Raising the awareness among stakeholders about P&D.
5. Control measures to reduce the incidence of pests and disease.

6. Most common pests and diseases in tropical fruit trees,…(case studies).

 introduction
• All trees are susceptible to pests and disease attack. The
trees affected by pests and diseases normally exhibit certain
stress symptoms.
• The main causative agents include the following families of
organisms: Insects, Fungi, Bacteria, Viruses, Nematodes, and
Protozoa.
• There is clear evidence that the risk to forest plantations
around the world from various pests an disease is increasing.

• In particular, there are a number of recently introduced

pests of eucalypts i.e. bronze bug threatening plantations
throughout East Africa including Rwanda.
 Pests VS disease

• A pest can be defined as any form of plant,

animal or pathogenic agent injurious or
potentially injurious to plants, plant products,
livestock or man.
• A pest may attack any part of the tree or its
products.
• A plant is healthy or normal when it can
carryout its physiological functions to the best
of its genetic potential. When plants are
infected by pathogens, they become diseased.
 Ctd’
• Diseases may be classified according to the
part of the plant affected; as root, stem and
foliage diseases.
• Diseases in forestry may affect seed, seedlings
or mature trees.
 1.Pests in Forestry
• The common known pests in forestry are insects and
this include: termites, defoliators, sap suckers, seed
and wood borers. Termites are however the major
pests.
 Major pests in Rwanda and EA

Pests
Gonipterus spp. Eucalypt Snout Eucalyptus spp. An old enemy making a
beetle comeback in E & S Africa
Leptocybe invasa (Blue Gum) Chalcid Eucalyptus spp. Now widespread in E & S
wasp Africa
Sirex noctilio Sirex wood wasp Pinus spp. Causing major losses in
RSA - and a major threat
to industry.
Termites (various Termites Most Widespread in hot, drier
spp.) hardwood spp. areas

Thaumastocoris Bronze bug Eucalyptus spp. Now widespread in E & S

peregrinus Africa
 Termites

• Termites destroy seedlings, saplings, mature

trees and wood in use. Termites can attack
root systems and the bark. They cause death
by ring-barking of seedlings or trees.

• Fig.
 Ctd’
• Though they destroy the trees, termites are an
important part of the natural fauna and play a
major role in soil aeration and recycling of
dead material. Again, some termite species
are edible e.g Macrotermes bellicossus and M.
subhyllinus
 Ctd’
• Among the factors that influence susceptibility
to termite attack are suitability of a particular
tree species to the site and chemical
substances contained in the wood e.g.
Eucalyptus are known to be susceptible
because they contain phenolic acid whereas
Balanites aegyptiaca and Cassia sienna,
Tamarindus indica, Azaderachta indica,
Dovyalis caffra, Melia spp are less susceptible.
 2.All parts of tree can be attacked
i. Root diseases: The fungi associated with root diseases
include species of Fusarium, Sclerotium and
Cyclindrocladium.These kill the whole root system.
ii. Foliage diseases: These attack leaves and young shoots.
They appear as leaf spots when only a part of the leaf is
affected and as leaf blights when the whole leaf is killed.
E.g Thaumastocoris peregrinus (BRONZE BUG):

iii.Stem and branches diseases: These cause cankers, diebacks

or galls and can easily be noticed in the seed beds when
associated with dead foliage.
• In the absence of dead foliage they go unnoticed until
seedlings are graded and sorted out.
 Seed disease
• These are mainly:
• Damping-off
• This is a fungal disease that attacks seeds and seedlings of all
tree species during germination.

•
Hardwood seedlings showing typical symptoms Pine seedling showing typical symptoms of damping-
of post emergence damping
off -off poor survival may indicate losses
 Common tree diseases
• 1. Cypress canker – the tree dies.
• Causative agent: Amileria mellea (fungus)

• Fig:
 Ctd’
• 2. Damping off disease in tree nurseries –
caused by fungi due to excessive watering and
shading.
• 3. Leucaena psyllid – destroys the leaves of
Leucaena leucocephala leading to mortality.

• 4. Forest “dieback” disease caused by

Phytophthora cinnamoni (fungal)
 Ctd’
• 5. Mortality in Eucalyptus tereticornis due to
pink disease caused by Corticum samonicolor
(bacterial)
• 6. Root-rot mortality in Acacia catechu caused
by Ganoderma lucidum forming sporophores
at the base of the tree.
• 7. Moth of Eterusia pulchella causes
defoliation in Pinus kesya.
• 8.powdery mildew, aphids, mosaic virus etc….
 Reporting pests and diseases
• When disease attacks are noticed on trees and
the attack is large, this should be reported to
the nearest government office.
• A part of the tree or seedlings attacked may
be collected as specimens and taken to the
relevant Research station( Lab )for action.
• Seeing disease attacks and taking no action is
an offence punishable by law.
 Control measures of pests and diseases in Forestry
• There are many management techniques that can reduce the
threat to plantations .
• 1.Good silvicultural practices:
• Careful planning combined with good silviculture can greatly
reduce stress and thereby promote healthy trees.
• Just like in human beings, healthy trees means strong trees,
which are often able to shrug off the unwanted attentions of
many potential pest and disease species. The most important
practices are:
•
• careful site-species matching ;
• diversity of species planted( not a single tree species) ;
• good weeding - especially pre- and post plant weeding;
• planting only robust, healthy plants and beating-up early ;
• thinning on time and to the recommended stocking .
o

2.Quarantine:

Plant material (including seed) should not be brought into the country illegally. Any seed or plant material being imported must be first cleared with the appropriate authorities: this usually means obtaining an Import Permit from the relevant Ministry and a Phytosanitary Certificate from the supplier in the country of origin.

The Phytosanitary Certificate will normally state that the plant material should be treated against specific pests and diseases. It is also important to bear in mind that it is not only that the imported material that might be harbouring pests and diseases but the actual plants themselves can sometimes cause a major problem. The Water Hyacinth plant and the Paper Mulberry tree are good examples of ornamental plants that have become environmental disasters in the East African region.
 3.Awaireness and monitoring
• Effective management of all tree health problems
depend on early detection. There is thus a need to
train the people who work directly with trees(e.g.
District forest officers) to recognize and interpret the
symptoms (signs of disease) of the main pest and
disease problems.

• Routine inspections of one’s plantations must be

carried out and carrying out a first (access) pruning
to 1.8 – 2.0m is strongly recommended as this greatly
assists movement within the plantation.
 Collaboration:
• Pests and diseases are no respecters of boundaries,
whether it is a country boundary or between your own
and your neighbours’ trees. Thus collaboration is vital
e. g :in RSA there are collaborative initiatives for two of
the most worrying pest and disease problems in pine
plantations and nurseries – namely, Sirex and Fusarium.
• This approach should be followed in East Africa even
though previous attempts to collaborate have not had
much impact – or have not been well communicated
(e.g. FAO’s Forest Invasive Species Network for Africa).
Greater involvement of the private sector in such
initiatives, however, will hopefully produce more
outputs in the near future.
 Importance of collaboration and research

• There are no quick fixes in tree health management and it

appears that the incidence of pests and diseases is
increasing. Roux and Slippers (2007) mentioned the
importance of research in the long term:

Successful pest and disease management requires

planning, long term vision, dedication and team work.
Tree health management needs an integrated strategy
which is only achievable by basing the strategies on
sound research and experience, rather than loose
interpretation. Management should thus include:
 Ctd’
• Selection and breeding: planting material should be continually
screened for susceptibility to the major pests and pathogens.
• Silviculture: careful site-species matching; good planting
practices, weeding etc. to create the best growing environment
for the trees.
• Biological control: this approach can be very successful with pest
problems, though it can take a long time and intensive research
to develop and implement.
• Chemical control: generally not feasible for many pests and
diseases in large plantations, though more suitable in nurseries.
• Quarantine: it is needed to keep pests and diseases out of a
country or out of a specific area in a country.
• Sanitation: it is especially important in nurseries to remove or
destroy all infected material.
 Selection and breeding of resistant plants:
• The selection, testing and eventual multiplication of
genetic material which is not susceptible to
infestation or infection is a major tool to avoid
losses to pests and diseases.
• This requires a focused research effort but
experience elsewhere (e.g. breeding Cryphonectria
canker-resistant hybrids of E. grandis x E. urophylla
in Brazil) shows that it can pay great dividends in
the long-term.
• Not all tree deaths are due to pests or diseases so it
is important to first try and isolate the likely cause.
 Rwanda???
• The main pest and disease problems for trees
growers in Rwanda can be simply grouped as:
• Fungi.
• Bacteria.
• Insects.
• Larger animals.
 Leptocybe invasa( blue gum chalcid)

• Description: the BGC, which is thought to have originated in

Australia and was first spotted in Kenya and Uganda around 2002/3
and has subsequently spread to all other countries in Southern and
East Africa. The BGC is a minute insect (<1.5mm long): it is black,
with transparent wings and only female species are known.

• Symptoms: galls form on the foliage and twigs of infected plants,

where the adult females have inserted their eggs into the epidermis
of young leaves, petioles and stems.

• Control Measures: A biological control agent, Selitrichodes neseri (a

primary parasite of BGC), was identified in Australia in 2010.
Following the required protocol of raising and testing the insect in a
controlled environment, the Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology
Institute (FABI) released the control agent in South Africa in 2011.
Indications are that it is having a significant impact on the target
pest.
 THAUMASTOCORIS PEREGRINUS (BRONZE BUG):

• Description: The Bronze Bug (Thaumastocoris peregrinus) is a

small (2-4mm) sap-sucking insect also from Australia that
surfaced in South Africa in 2003. It has since spread rapidly
throughout Southern and East Africa, where it has affected
vast areas of eucalypt plantations.
• Symptoms: The insect feeds on the trees’ leaves, causing
severe defoliation and in some cases even killing the trees.
Identification is from observing the many insects and nymphs
as well as noticing the bronzing of the trees’ leaves followed
by early leaf deaths.
• Control measures: Similar to BCG, biological control appears
to offer the best control for Bronze bug. FABI have already
identified a biological control agent - namely, an egg
parasitoid, Cleruchoides noackea.
 GONIPTERUS SPP. (EUCALYPTUS SNOUT BEETLE OR WEEVIL):

• Description: the adult beetles are brown to red-brown,

ca. 8-9mm in length and have a characteristic 'X'
marking on the back. The larvae are yellow with two
black lateral stripes: they are ca.10mm when fully
grown. The latest research indicates that there is more
than one Gonipterus species
• Symptoms: the Snout Beetles eat both the foliage and
young shoots of Eucalyptus trees. Their feeding causes
stunted growth and shoot die-back, which can be seen
in the tree's canopies.
• Control measures: The introduction of the parasitoid
Myrmarid wasp Anophoidea nitens was introduced
from Australia into South Africa and gave effective
control of Gonipterus at altitudes up to 1,200 m.
 CINARA CUPRESSIVORA (CYPRESS APHID):

• Description: The Cypress aphid adults are typically 2-5 mm in length,

dark brown in colour with long legs. Their bodies are sometimes
covered in a powdery wax. They typically occur in colonies of 20-80
adults and nymphs on the branches of the host trees.

• Symptoms: The aphids feeding causes branch dieback and ultimately

tree mortality. The aphid feeds in colonies, sucking sap from
branches. Under heavy infestations, whole branches yellow and die
back and infestation can lead to tree death.

• Control measures: Biological control with the parasite Pauesia

juniperorum has been successful in Kenya and Malawi but his was
largely after massive damage had been done to plantations.
Alternative species will also grow significantly faster on typical C.
lusitanica sites, notably, P. patula, though the wood of C. lusitanica is
far superior.
• Previously known as Cinara cupressi.
 Termites

• Description: termites are the most serious pests in plantation

forestry in the Tropics. In the hotter and drier areas of Africa,
Macrotermes spp. can decimate eucalypts Trees less than two
years old are generally targeted.

• Symptoms: termites typically eat the roots, root collars and

bark of trees up to two years old. Often the first symptom is
the drying of the young trees from the new shoots
downwards. The infected tree eventually completely dries up
and dies. On closer inspection, the bark around the root collar
(at or just below ground level) can be seen to be eaten and
when pulled up, many of the trees’ roots will usually have
been eaten.
 Control Measures
• control of the mound-building termites has traditionally been by mound
destruction – notably through physical removal of the queen followed by
application of insecticides.

• NB. Many of the insecticides currently available are highly poisonous and thus
we are not generally recommending their use: growers must first check that any
chemical is registered for use in Rwanda, have trained their staff properly in
pesticide use, provide appropriate PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) for
those handling chemicals and follow the instructions on the product’s label.

• Nyeko and Nakabonge (2008) note the following practices that may minimise
termite damage:
 Ctd’
– Application of less persistent insecticides such as
chlorpyrifos, isofenphos, carbosulfan, carbofuran,
permethrin and decamethrin.
– Powder and granular formulations of some insecticides
(e.g. Dusban) can be mixed with nursery soil or put into
planting holes at planting.
– Using healthy and vigorous planting stock.
– Planting seedlings as early as possible in the rainy season.
– Ensuring seedlings are well watered immediately before
planting out.
– Planting species or provenances that are resistant to
termites.
 BOTRYOSPHAERIA STEM CANKER

• Description: Botryosphaeria spp. fungi are usually identified from its

symptoms. Infected trees are characterized by stem swellings, bark
cracks and the exudation of black kino (which gives infected stems a
dark reddish black colour).

• Symptoms: a wide range of symptoms occur – the most serious being

the development of stem cankers and the death of tree tops. Stems
cankers are most common on trees stressed by drought or those
planted on the wrong sites.

• Control Measures: no eradicative treatment is available. We

recommend cutting badly infected trees out during routine thinning
operations. Since the pathogen is recognised as stress related, apply
optimum silvicultural techniques to minimize stress.
 KIRRAMYCES STEM CANKER

• Description: The fungus Teratosphaeria

zulense is often referred to as ‘measles
disease’.
• Symptoms: small, dark spots on young bark
are the first signs, followed by larger patched
of dead bark that exude large amounts of
kino.
• Control Measures: no eradicative treatment is
available.
 P&D in Tropical Fruit trees: case study.
1.Mango :( Mangifera indica)
The Primary insects pests of magoes are the
mosquito-back(helopeltis spp : sucking insects
and feed on fruits and the mango stone weavil
( strenochetus spp).
The two serious fungal diseases of mangoes are
powdery mildew( oidium mangiferae) and
Anthracnose( colletotricuhum gloeosporioides)
 2.Pawpaw( carica papaya)
• Papaya are less damaged by insect but damage by diseases
can be very severe: Seedlings are susceptible to damping- off
• Bunchy top caused by virus transmitted by homopterous
insects
• Collar rot
• Root- knot nematodes
• Pawpaw ring spot virus( leaves become yellowish)
 3. Citrus
• Citrus are mostly infected by aphids which
transmit citrus tristeza virus;
• Asian citrus psyllid
• Bacterial called Huaglongbing(HLB) also
known as greening disease
• Larvae of Lepidoptera ( butterfly and moth
spp) and many spp in the family of
papilionidae( swalowtail butterflies)
 4.Apples( Morus domestica)
• They are susceptible to bacterial, fungal and
insect pests
• Mildew: grey powdery appear on leaves,
shoots and flowers, burn the infected plant
• Aphids: feed on foliage and some may spread
the viruses
• Apples scab: it affects the fruits and leaves
 5.Macadamia( Macadamia spp.)
• Macadamia root rot- Kretzschmariclavis
• Trunk canker- phytophitora cinnamoni
• Dieback;
• Macadamia quick decline(MQD);
• Flower blights;
• Premature nut drop: caused by environmental
stress
6.Tamarillo tree/tree tomato( Solanum betaceun, known as cyphomandra betacea

• They are attacked by a lot of diseases and pests:

• Viruses.e.g.Tamarillo mosaic virus(TaMV)
• Nematodes: Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica, M.
hapla
• Insects: Aphids, green house whitefly, tomato worm
• Fungi: powdery mildew