Electrical Installation

Chapter Four
Grounding System and Testing Electrical
Installation

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1.1 Introduction
The thin layer of material which covers our planet, be it
rock, clay, chalk, or what ever, is what we in the world of
electricity refer to as earth.
It would be wise at this stage to revise potential
difference (p.d). A potential difference is exactly a
difference in potential (volts). Hence two conductors
having p.d of say, 20v and 26v have a p.d between them
of 26-20 = 6v. The original p.ds, i.e20v and 26v,are the p.ds
between 20v & 0v and 26v and 0v.
This 0v or zero potential come from the earth. The
definition of earth is there for the conductive mass of
earth, whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken as zero.
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Hence if we connect a voltmeter between a live part
(example the phase conductor of, say a socket outlet)
and earth, we would probably read 240v; the conductor
is at 240v, the earth is zero. We would measure nothing at
all if we connected our volt meter between, say the
positive 12v terminal of a car battery and earth ,as in
this case the earth plays no part in any circuit .
Figure below illustrates this difference.

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Note the connection of the supply neutral in fig-a, to
earth, which makes it possible to have complete circuit
via the earth . So, supply authority neutrals should be
at around zero volts ,and in order to maintain this
condition they are connected to zero potential of
earth.
This also means that a person in an installation touching
a live part whilst standing on the earth would take the
place of the voltmeter in Fig-a, and could suffer sever
electric shock. Remember that the accepted lethal level
of shock current passing through a person is only 50mA
or 1/20A. The same situation would arise if the person
were touching; lets consider a faulty appliance and a gas or
water pipe as shown below.
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One method of providing some measure of protection against
these effects is to join together (bond ) all metallic parts and
connect them to earth . this ensures that all metal work in a
healthy situation is at or near zero volts ,and under fault
conditions all metal work will rise to the same potential. So
simultaneous contact with two such metal parts would not
result in a shock, as there will be no p.d between them. This
method
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is known as earthed equi-potential bonding. 5
Unfortunately, as previously mentioned, earth itself is
not a good conductor unless it is very wet, and there
for it presents a high resistance to the flow of fault
current . this resistance is usually enough to restrict
fault current to a level well below that of the rating
of the protective device ,leaving a faulty circuit
uninterrupted. Clearly this is an unhealthy situation . The
methods of overcoming this problem will be dealt with
later.
In all but the most rural areas, consumers can
connected to a metallic earth return conductor which is
ultimately connected to the earthed neutral of the
supply .This of course presents a low resistance path for
fault currents to operate the protection.
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System earthing :This relates to transformer neutral
and its interrelated and bonded components solid and
permanent connection to earth. It is used to limit
voltages due to lightning, line surges, or unintentional
contact with higher voltage lines and to stabilize the
voltage to ground during normal operation.
Equipment Earthing: Connecting the noncurrent carrying
metal parts of equipment, conduit, outlet boxes, and other
enclosures to the system earthing or local earthing system.
This provides a low impedance path for fault current that will
facilitate the operation of over current devices and protect
human & animal life and damage of property under earth
fault conditions
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Connecting to Earth
There are several methods of making a connection to
earth, which includes the use of rods, plates and tapes .
By far the most popular method in every day use is the
rod earth electrode. The plate type needs to be buried at
a sufficient depth to be effective and , as such plates
may be 1 or 2 meters square, considerable excavation
may be necessary. The tape type is predominantly
used in the earthing of large electricity substations ,
where the tape is laid in trenches in a mesh
formation over the whole site . Items of plant are then
earthed to this mesh.

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1.2.1 Rod electrodes
These are usually of solid copper or copper- clad carbon steel, then later
being used for the larger diameter rods with extension facilities. These facilities
comprise: a thread at each end of the rod to enable the coupler to be used for
connection of the next rod ; a steel cap to protect the thread from damage when
the rod is being driven in ; a steel driving tip ; and a clamp for the connection of
an earth tape or conductor . see figure below :


The choice of length and diameter of the rod will depend on the
soil conditions . For example , a long and thick electrode is used for
earth little moisture retention . Generally , a 1 – 2 m rod , 16mm in
diameter
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will give a relatively low resistance. 9
1.2.2 Earth electrode resistance

If we were to place an electrode in the earth and then measure the
resistance between the electrode and points at increasingly larger
distances from it , we would notice that the resistance increased
with distance until a point was reached (usually around 2.5m)
beyond which no increase in resistance was seen. See figure below:

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For a 2m earth rod , with its top at ground level , 80% to 90% of
the voltage appearing at the electrode under fault conditions is
dropped across the earth in the first 2.5 to 3 m . This particularly
dangerous where live stock are present as the hind and fore legs of
an animal can respectively inside and outside the resistance area :
25v can be lethal .

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This problem can be overcome by earthing that the
whole of the electrode is well below ground level and by
providing protection that will operate in a fraction of a
second ( earth leakage circuit breaker) see figure below :

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Of course, values of resistance will depend on the type of soil and
its moisture content. Any soil that holds moisture such as clay or
marshy ground has relatively low resistance, where as gravel or rock
has high resistivity.
 Typical values of receptivity in ohms are as follows:
Garden soil 5 to 10
Clay 10 to 100
Sand 250 to 500
Rock 1000 to 10 000

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1.2.3 Earthing systems
Contact with metal work made live by a fault is called indirect
contact. One popular method of providing some measure of
protection against such contact is by earth equipotent bonding and
automatic disconnection of supply. This entails bonding together
and connection to earth of :
-All metal work associated with electrical apparatus and systems ,
termed exposed conductive parts . Examples, conduit , trunking and
the metal cases of apparatus.
-All metal work liable to introduce a potential including earth
potential , termed extraneous conductive parts .
Examples are gas , oil and water pipes , structural steel work ,
radiators , sinks and baths.

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 The conductors used in such connections are called protective
conductors , and they can be further subdivided
in to :
-Circuit protective conductors , for connecting exposed conductive
parts to the main earthing terminal.
-Main equi-potential bonding conductors for bonding together main
incoming services , structural steel work etc.
-Supplementary bonding conductors for bonding together sinks ,
baths , taps , radiators etc ,and exposed conductive parts.
The effect of this bonding is to create a zone in which all metal
work of different services and systems will , even under fault
conditions , be at a substantially equal potential . If added to this ,
there is a low – resistance earth return path , the protection should
operate fast enough to prevent ganger .The resistance of such an
earth system will depend upon the system. These systems have been
designated in the IEE regulations using letters T, N, C and S. These
letters
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stand for: 15
•First letter - "supply" earthing arrangement. T indicates
that one or more points of the supply are directly
earthed . I indicates that the supply is no where earthed.
•Second letter - " installation" earthing arrangements. T
indicates that all exposed conductive metal work is
connected directly to earth. N indicates that all exposed
Conductive metal work is connected directly to the
earthed supply conductor usually the neutral.
•Third and Forth letters - earthed supply conductor
arrangement. S indicates separate neutral and earthed
conductor . C indicates combined neutral and earth in
single conductor.

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1-TT-system: The exposed conductive parts of an installation are
connected to an earth electrode which is independent of the
supply earth.

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2-TN-S system: The consumers earth terminal is connected to the
supply authority protective conductor usually the cable sheath
and armoring , and so provides a continues metallic path back to
the earth electrode. The majority of installations with an under
ground are of this type.

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3-TN-C system : The neutral and protective functions are combined
in a single conductor through out the system.

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4-TN-C-S system : The supply neutral and protective functions are combined and
earthed at several points , often with an earth electrode at or near the consumers
incoming terminals.

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5-IT system: The exposed conductive parts of the installation are
connected to the consumers earth electrode, while the supply is
either isolated from earth connected to earth through an
impedance.

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2. Testing of installation
The testing of an electrical installation is an important and skilful task and
is best carried out by suitably qualified persons; indeed in electricity at
work regulations insist that unless a person possesses technical knowledge
or experience suitable for the task, that person should carry it out under
the supervision of someone who has experience and knowledge.
Below is the sequence of testes, where applicable, for the initial testing of
anew installation. These tests may be carried out before the supply is
connected, or with the supply disconnected, as appropriate:
• Continuity of protective conductors
• Continuity of ring final circuits.
• Insulation test.
• Verification of polarity.
• Earth electrode test.
• Connection of conductors
• Identification of conductors
• Methods of protection against direct and indirect contact
• Routing of cables in safe zones
• Erection methods
• Presence of diagrams, instructions, and similar information
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A. Continuity of protective conductors test:
The continuity of protective conductors (cpcs) and main and supplementary
bonding conductors(ring final circuits are dealt separately)should be tested to
verify that they are electrically sound and correctly connected . The test should
be carried out using specialized low-reading ohm-meter or by selecting the ohms
scale on an insulation tester. The test current may be ac. Or dc. but should be
derived from a source with an open circuit voltage of not less than 3v and not
greater than 20v. The test current should be not less than 20mA.
Test method 1: Strap the phase conductor to the CPC at the distribution
board so as to include all the circuit. Then test between the phase and
CPC connections at each outlet in the circuit. The measurement (R1+R2)
at the circuits extremity should be recorded.
Test method 2: First connect along test lead to the continuity tester, then
connect this to the consumers earth terminal. Next use the other lead of
the tester to make contact with the CPCs at various points of the circuits,
e.g switches and luminaries. The resistance reading will include the
resistance of the test leads.
The resistance of the leads should be measured and the result taken
away from the first reading to obtain the final result. To test continuity
of bonding conductors Test method 2 should be used.
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B. Continuity of Ring Final Circuit Conductors Test

A test is required to verify the continuity of the phase, neutral and

CPCs of every final ring circuit. The test should be carried out using
a specialized low – reading ohmmeter or by selecting the ohm
scale on an insulation tester.
With each leg of the ring final circuit identified, the phase
conductor of one leg and the neutral of the other leg are bridged
temporarily . A finite reading will confirm that there is no open
circuit on the ring final circuit conductors under test. The
remaining conductors are then temporarily bridged together.
Next the resistance between phase and neutral contacts at each
socket on the ring is measured and noted . Each reading taken
should be substantially the same provided that there is no
multiple loops existing over the length of the ring.
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Where the CPC is part of the ring the test is repeated ; the phase
conductor of one leg and one leg of the CPC are bridged
temporarily . The resistance is measured between the remaining
phase and CPC conductors A finite reading will confirm that there
is no open circuit on the ring final circuit conductors under test .The
remaining phase and CPC conductors are then bridged temporarily
together.
Next the resistance between phase and CPC contacts at each
socket on the ring is measured and noted Each reading taken
should be substantially the same provided that there are no
multiple loops existing over the length of the ring, and the
readings at the center point of the ring are approximately equal
to(R1 + R2) for the circuit .The readings should then be recorded.

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C. Insulation Test
The purpose of insulation test is to ensure that the insulation is
sound and that no faults exist between phase and neutral
conductors and between each of these conductors and earth. The
test is carried out with the circuit to be tested isolated from the
mains supply , using an insulation tester on which mega ohm scale
has been selected.
The current that the tester should be capable of supplying, when
applied to the minimum acceptable insulation resistance for the
circuits nominal voltage, is prescribed as being 1mA, but some of
older testers are not capable of this and a careful check should be
made that the instrument in use complies. The voltage range to be
used the minimum insulation resistance reading to be achieved for
particular types of circuit are listed.

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250v d.c for extra-low voltage circuits supplied from a safety
isolating transformer. Insulation resistance: not less than 0.25
mega ohms.
500v d.c for circuits up to and including 500v.Insulation
resistance: not less than 0.5 mega ohms.
1000v d.c. for circuits above 500v and up to 1000v. Insulation
resistance : not less than 1.0 mega ohm.
Before testing check:
Pilot or indicator lamps and capacitors are disconnected from the
circuits to avoid an in accurate test value being recorded.
All current using equipment and especially that containing electronic
circuitry including dimmer switches, touch switches, delay timers,
electronic starters for discharge lamps, power controllers, etc must be
disconnected for the test.
The instrument is working correctly on all the above ranges and including
the ohms scale if included on the instrument. If the tester is battery
operated check that this is in good condition; most testers have a battery
check facility.
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Single Phase
A. When testing single phase circuit isolate the supply as near as to
the main intake position as possible; make sure that all lamps have
been removed, and that all appliances are either unplugged or
isolated from the circuit by switching them off .
B. The fuses must be placed and all switches in the on position (other
than ones isolating appliance from the circuit).
When these conditions have been satisfied and the correct range has
been selected on the meter test can commence as follows:
Connect the leads of the instrument between phase and neutral at
the appropriate fuse board. A reading is taken in mega ohms and this
must not be less than indicated above. For 240v single phase a.c.
circuits this will be at 500v with an insulation resistance of not less
than 0.5 mega ohms.

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When testing between phase and earth and neutral to earth, it is
common practice to bunch phase and neutral together and test
between these and earth. The same range is selected as for above
and the reading taken in mega ohms, and this must not be less
than that indicated above .
For 240v single phase a.c. circuits this will be at 500v with an
insulation resistance of not less than 0.5 mega ohms. If a fault
should be detected, it will be necessary to test between phase and
earth and neutral and earth separately, in order to ascertain which
of these conductors the fault on(see figures provided)

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Note: If a two –way lighting circuit is installed it will be necessary to operate one of the switches
and repeat the test in order to test the second strapping wire.

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Three Phase
When testing three phase circuits isolate the mains supply as near
to the mains intake position as possible, make sure that all
equipment, especially sensitive electronically operated types isolated
from the circuit by switching off. The fuses must be in place and all
switches in the on position(other than ones isolating equipment from
the circuit).
When these conditions have been satisfied and the correct range
has been selected on the meter the test can commence as follows:
When testing between the phases and neutral , it is common
practice to bunch the three phases together and test between these
and neutral conductor. If a fault should be detected , it will be
necessary to test between each phase and the neutral separately .
When testing between the three phases and earth, it is common
practice to bunch the three phases together and test between these
and the CPC conductor. If a fault should be detected , it will be
necessary
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to test between each phase and the CPC separately. 33
Finally test between the neutral conductor and the CPC.
The readings of the above tests are taken in mega ohms and these must
not be less than that indicated above. For 415v three phase a.c. circuits
this will be at 500 v with an insulation resistance not less than 0.5 mega
ohms.
Although all above cases an insulation value of not less than 0.5 mega
ohm complies with the regulations, where an insulation resistance of
less than 2.0 mega ohms is recorded then there is a possibility of a latent
defect existing.
If this is the case then each individual circuit must be separately tested
until its measured insulation resistance should be greater than 2.0 mega
ohms. Where equipment has been disconnected in order to carry out
the testes , and it is not less than using class 2( double insulation)
protection, then, if it is practical, the equipment itself must undergo an
insulation test. The test result must comply with British standard for the
equipment; if ,however, there is no standard , the insulation resistance
measured between the phase connection and the CPC shall be not less
than 0.5 mega ohms.
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D. Verification of polarity
The polarity test is made to establish that:
All fuses and single control devices are connected in the phase
conductor only.
The center contact bayonet lamp holder and the Edison screw lamp
holder have their outer contacts connected to the earthed neutral
conductor.
Socket outlets have the phase conductor connected to the terminal
marked L, the CPC is connected to the terminal marked E, and the
neutral conductor is connected to the terminal marked N.
There are two methods of testing polarity:
1.with the supply switched off.
2.with the supply switched on.

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With the supply switched off the polarity can be tested by the use of an
ohmmeter or the continuity range of an insulation and continuity
tester.
With the main switch off, circuit fuses in place, lighting switches off and
all lamps and equipment removed, the phase and the consumers
earthing terminal are linked.
With lighting final circuits a test is made between earth and each of
the terminals of the switch; only one of the terminals, the phase
connection, should indicate a continuous circuit on the continuity
tester. On socket outlet final circuits a test between phase and the CPC
will indicate a continuous circuit on the continuity tester though if the
continuity of ring final circuit tests have been carried out no further
testing is really required.
The above method is the safest method and is the one most widely used. The electrician
is sometimes asked to carry out test on existing installations and it is not always convenient
to switch off the supply. Under these circumstances the test can be carried out with the use
of a voltmeter or approved test lamp.
Each of the outlets is visited in turn and it is ascertained that the phase conductors do in
fact go to the correct terminals(see figures provided)
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