Chapter 4

Designing IP Addressing and selecting Routing Protocols

 Designing an IP Addressing Plan

 The IP address space is divided into:-

 Public and
 Private spaces.
 Private addresses are reserved IP addresses that are to be
used only internally within a company’s network, not on
the Internet.
 Private addresses must be mapped to a company’s
external registered address when sending anything on the
Internet.

 Public IP addresses are provided for external

communication.

10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
 Private Vs Public Address Selection Criteria
 In most cases, the number of public IP addresses assigned to an organization is inadequate for
addressing their entire network.
 The solution to this problem is to use NAT.
 When selecting addresses, the network designer should consider the following questions:
■ Are private, public, or both IP address types required?
■ How many end systems need only access to the public network? (such as e-mail, file
transfer, or web browsing)
■ How many end systems must have access to and be visible to the public network?
 such as public servers and servers used for e-commerce, such as web servers, database servers,
and application servers)
■ Where will the boundaries between the private and public IP addresses be, and how will
they be implemented?
 Interconnecting Private and Public Addresses

 According to its needs, an organization can use both public and private addresses.
 A router or firewall acts as the interface between the network’s private and public sections.
 When private addresses are used for addressing in a network and this network must be
connected to the Internet, Network Address Translation (NAT) or Port Address Translation
(PAT) must be used to translate from private to public addresses and vice versa.
 NAT or PAT is required if accessibility to the public Internet or public visibility is required.

o Static NAT is a one-to-one mapping of an unregistered IP address to a registered IP address.

One private address to one public address: Used in cases when servers on the internal network with
private IP addresses must be visible from the public network.
The translation from the server’s private IP address to the public IP address is defined statically.
 Cont….
o Dynamic NAT maps an unregistered IP address to a registered IP address from a group of
registered IP addresses.
o NAT overloading, or PAT, is a form of dynamic NAT that maps multiple unregistered IP
addresses to a single registered IP address by using different port numbers.
 Many private addresses to one public address: Used for end systems that require access to the
public network but do not have to be visible to the outside world.
 Guidelines for Use of Private and Public Addresses in an Enterprise Network
 Private IP addresses are used throughout
o Enterprise Campus,
o Enterprise Branch, and
o Enterprise Teleworker modules.

The following modules include public addresses:

o The Internet Connectivity module, where public IP addresses are used for Internet connections
and publicly accessible servers.
o The E-commerce module, where public IP addresses are used for the database, application,
and web servers.
o The Remote Access and virtual private network (VPN) module, the Enterprise Data Center
module, and the WAN and metropolitan-area network (MAN) and Site-to-Site VPN module,
where public IP addresses are used for certain connections.
Cont.….
 Determining the Size of the Network
 The first step in designing an IP addressing plan is determining the size of the network .
Wave to know
 How many IP subnets and
 How many IP addresses are needed on each subnet.
 To gather this information, answer the following questions:
■ How many locations does the network consist of?: The designer must determine the number and
type of locations.
■ How many devices in each location need addresses?: The network designer must determine the
number of devices that need to be addressed, including end systems, router interfaces, switches,
firewall interfaces, and any other devices.
■ What are the IP addressing requirements for individual locations?: The designer must collect
information about which
o Systems will use dynamic addressing,
o Which will use static addresses, and
o Which systems can use private instead of public addresses.
What subnet size is appropriate?: Based on the collected information about the number of networks and
planned switch deployment, the designer estimates the appropriate subnet size.
 Planning the IP Addressing Hierarchy
 Hierarchical Addressing
The telephone numbering system is a hierarchical system.
 For example, the North American Numbering Plan includes
o The country code,
o The area code,
o The local exchange, and
o The line number.
IP Addressing Hierarchy Criteria
 IP addressing hierarchy has an important impact on the routing protocol choice, and vice versa.
 The decision about how to implement the IP addressing hierarchy is usually based on the
following questions:

■ Is hierarchy needed within the IP addressing plan?

■ What are the criteria for dividing the network into route summarization groups?
 Rout summarization is a method of minimizing the number of routing table.
 It combines multiple routing table in to single routing advertisement
■ How is route summarization performed, and what is the correlation with routing?
•
■ Is a hierarchy of route summarization groups required?
•
■ How many end systems does each route summarization group or subgroup contain?
 Benefits of Hierarchical Addressing
o A network designer decides how to implement the IP addressing hierarchy based on the network’s:-
Size,
Geography, and
Topology.
 For the following reasons, a planned, hierarchical IP addressing structure, is recommended for networks
of all sizes:
■ Influence of IP addressing on routing: An IP addressing plan influences the network’s overall
routing.
 Before allocating blocks of IP addresses to various parts of the network and assigning IP addresses to
devices, consider the criteria for an appropriate and effective IP addressing scheme.
 Some of network characteristics that has direct relation with IP address allocation are:
o Routing stability,
o Service availability,
o Network scalability, and
o Modularity
Cont.….
 Modular design and scalable solutions: Whether building new network or adding a new service on top
of an existing infrastructure, a modular design helps to deliver a long-term, scalable solution.
 IP addressing modularity allows the aggregation of routing information on a hierarchical basis.

■ Route aggregation: Route aggregation is used to reduce routing overhead and improve routing
stability and scalability.
 However, to implement route aggregation, a designer must be able to divide a network into contiguous IP
address areas and must have a solid understanding of IP address assignment, route aggregation, and
hierarchical routing
 Impact of Poorly Designed IP Addressing

■ Excess routing traffic consumes bandwidth: When any route changes, routers send routing updates.
 Without summarization, more updates are sent, and the routing traffic consumes more bandwidth.

■ Increased routing table recalculation: Routing updates require routing table recalculation, which
affects the router’s performance and ability to forward traffic.

■ Possibility of routing loops: When too many routing changes prevent routers from converging with
their neighbors, routing loops might occur, which might have global consequences for an organization.
 Methods of Assigning IP Addresses
Address assignment includes :-
o Assigning an IP address,
o A default gateway,
o Domain name servers that resolve names to IP addresses,

Before selecting the desired IP address assignment method, the following questions should be
answered:
 How many devices need an IP address?
 Which devices require static IP address assignment?
 Is IP address renumbering expected in the future?
 Is the administrator required to track devices and their IP addresses?
 Do additional parameters (default gateway, name server, and so forth) have to be configured?
 Are there any availability issues?
 Are there any security issues?
 Cont…
Static Versus Dynamic IP Address Assignment Methods
 Following are the two basic IP address assignment strategies:
■ Static: An IP address is statically assigned to a system.
 The network administrator configures the IP address, default gateway, and name servers
manually by entering them into a special file or files on the end system with either a graphical
or text interface.
 Static address assignment is an extra burden for the administrator—especially on large-scale
networks who must configure the address on every end system in the network.

■ Dynamic: IP addresses are dynamically assigned to the end systems.

 Dynamic address assignment relieves the administrator of manually assigning an address to
every network device. Instead, the administrator must set up a server to assign the
addresses.
 When to Use Static or Dynamic Address Assignment
 To select either a static or dynamic or a combination of the two, consider the following:

■ Node type: Network devices such as routers and switches typically have static addresses.
End-user devices such as PCs typically have dynamic addresses.

■ The number of end systems: If there are more than 30 end systems, dynamic address
assignment is preferred. Static assignment can be used for smaller networks.

■ Renumbering: If renumbering is likely to happen and there are many end systems, dynamic
address assignment is the best choice.
 With DHCP, only DHCP server reconfiguration is needed; with static assignment, all hosts must
be reconfigured
 Cont…
■ Address tracking: If the network policy requires address tracking, the static address
assignment method might be easier to implement than the dynamic address assignment method.
 However, address tracking is also possible with dynamic address assignment with additional
DHCP server configuration.

■ Additional parameters: DHCP is the easiest solution when additional parameters must be
configured.
 The parameters have to be entered only on the DHCP server, which then sends the address and
those parameters to the clients.
 Cont.…
■ High availability: Statically assigned IP addresses are always available.
 Dynamically assigned IP addresses must be acquired from the server; if the server fails, the
addresses cannot be acquired.
 To ensure reliability, a redundant DHCP server is required.

■ Security: With dynamic IP address assignment, anyone who connects to the network can
acquire a valid IP address, in most cases. This might be a security risk.
 Static IP address assignment poses only a minor security risk.
 The use of one address assignment method does not exclude the use of another in a different
part of the network
 Guidelines for Assigning IP Addresses in the Enterprise Network
The static IP address assignment method is typically
used for:-
o Campus network infrastructure devices,
o In the Server Farm and
o Enterprise Data Center modules,

 In the modules of the Enterprise Edge (the E-

Commerce, Internet Connectivity, Remote Access
and VPN, and WAN and MAN and Site-to-Site VPN
modules).

 Static addresses are required for systems such as

servers or network devices, in which the IP address
must be known at all times for connectivity, general
access, or management
 Using DHCP to Assign IP Addresses
 DHCP is used to provide dynamic IP address allocation to hosts.
 DHCP uses a client/server model;
Figure 6-15 shows the steps that occur when a DHCP client requests an IP address from a DHCP
server.
 Cont….
 DHCP supports three possible address allocation mechanisms:

■ Manual: The network administrator assigns an IP address to a specific MAC address.

 DHCP is used to dispatch the assigned address to the host.
■ Automatic: DHCP permanently assigns the IP address to a host.

■ Dynamic: DHCP assigns the IP address to a host for a limited time (called a lease) or until
the host explicitly releases the address.
 This mechanism supports automatic address reuse when the host to which the address has been
assigned no longer needs the address.
 Name Resolution
 Names are used to identify different hosts and resources on the network and to provide user
friendly interaction with computers; a name is much easier to remember than an IP address.
 Hosts (computers, servers, printers, and so forth) identify themselves to each other using various
naming schemes.
 Each computer on the network can have an assigned name to provide easier communication
between devices and among users.
 Name that is used to identify a host must be mapped or resolved into an IP address; this is
known as name resolution.
 To select the desired name resolution method, the following questions should be answered:
■ How many hosts require name resolution?
■ Are applications that depend on name resolution present?
■ Is the network isolated, or is it connected to the Internet?
■ If the network is isolated, how frequently are new hosts added, and how frequently do
names change?
Cont.…
Static Versus Dynamic Name Resolution
 The process of resolving a hostname to an IP address can be either static or dynamic.
■ Static: The network administrator manually defines name-to-IP-address resolutions by entering
the name and IP address pairs into the local database (HOSTS file) using either a graphical or text
interface.

■ Dynamic: The administrator has to enter the name-to-IP-address resolutions only on a

local DNS server rather than on every host.
 The DNS server then performs the name-to IP-address resolution.
 Renumbering and renaming are easier with the dynamic name-to-IP address resolution
method.
 Cont.…
 When to Use Static or Dynamic Name Resolution
The selection of either a static or dynamic end-system name resolution method depends on the
following criteria:
■ The number of hosts: If there are more than 30 end systems, dynamic name resolution is
preferred. Static name resolution is manageable for fewer hosts.
■ Isolated network: If the network is isolated (it does not have any connections to the Internet)
and the number of hosts is small, static name resolution might be appropriate.
 The dynamic method is also possible; the choice is an administrative decision.
■ Internet connectivity: When Internet connectivity is available for end users, static name
resolution is not an option, and dynamic name resolution using DNS is mandatory.
■ Frequent changes and adding of names: When dealing with frequent changes and adding
names to a network, dynamic name resolution is recommended.
■ Applications depending on name resolution: If applications that depend on name resolution
are used, dynamic name resolution is recommended.
Cont.….
Cont…
 Introduction to IPv6
 IPv6 is a technology developed to overcome the limitations of the current standard, IPv4, which
allows end systems to communicate and forms the foundation of the Internet as we know it today.
 This section on IPv6-specific design considerations provides an overview of IPv6 features and
addressing and explains the various IPv6 address types.
 The address assignment and name resolution strategies for IPv6 are explored. The transition from IPv4
to IPv6 is discussed, and the section concludes with a brief description of the IPv6 routing protocols.
 The ability to scale networks for future demands requires a limitless supply of IP addresses and
improved mobility; IPv6 combines expanded addressing with a more efficient and feature-rich
header to meet these demands.
 IPv6 satisfies the increasingly complex requirements of hierarchical addressing that IPv4 does
not support.
 The main benefits of IPv6 include the following:
■ Larger address space: IPv6 addresses are 128 bits, compared to IPv4’s 32 bits. This larger
addressing space allows more support for addressing hierarchy levels, a much greater number
of addressable nodes, and simpler autoconfiguration of addresses.
Cont…
 Differences Between IPv4 and IPv6
Regardless of which protocol is used, the communication between IPv4 and IPv6 domains must
be transparent to end users.
 The major differences to consider between IPv4 and IPv6 include the following:
■ IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long, whereas IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long.
■ An IPv6 packet header is different from an IPv4 packet header.
 The IPv6 header is longer and simpler (new fields were added to the IPv6 header, and some old
fields were removed).
■ IPv6 has no concept of broadcast addresses; instead, it uses multicast addresses.
■ Routing protocols must be changed to support native IPv6 routing.
Routing Protocols for the Network

 Routing Protocol Features

There are many ways to characterize routing protocols, including the following:
■ Static versus dynamic routing
■ Interior versus exterior routing protocols
■ Distance vector versus link-state versus hybrid protocols
■ Routing protocol metrics
■ Routing protocol convergence
Cont.…
 Static Versus Dynamic Routing
Static Routing
The term static routing denotes the use of manually configured or injected static routes for traffic
forwarding purposes. Using a static route might be appropriate in the following circumstances:
■ When it is undesirable to have dynamic routing updates forwarded across slow bandwidth links,
such as a dialup link
■ When the administrator needs total control over the routes used by the router
■ When a backup to a dynamically learned route is necessary
■ When it is necessary to reach a network that is accessible by only one path (a stub network)
Configuring and maintaining static routes is time-consuming. Properly implementing static routes
requires complete knowledge of the entire network
 Con….
 Dynamic Routing
Dynamic routing allows the network to adjust to changes in the topology automatically, without
administrator involvement.
 A static route cannot dynamically respond to changes in the network.
 If a new router or new link is added, that information must also be configured on every router
in the network.
 In a very large or unstable network, these changes can lead to considerable work for network
administrators.
 It can also take a long time for every router in the network to receive the correct information.
 It is better to have the routers receive information about networks and links from each other using a
dynamic routing protocol.
Cont.….
 Dynamic routing protocols must do the following:
■ Find sources from which routing information can be received (usually neighboring routers)
■ Select the best paths toward all reachable destinations, based on received information
■ Maintain this routing information
■ Have a means of verifying routing information (periodic updates or refreshes)
 Routers exchange information only with other routers running the same routing protocol.
 When the network topology changes, the new information is dynamically propagated throughout
the network, and each router updates its routing table to reflect the changes.
Cont.…
 Interior Versus Exterior Routing Protocols
An autonomous system (AS), also known as a domain, is a collection of routers that are under a common
administration, such as a company’s internal network or an Internet service provider’s (ISP’s) network.
 Different types of protocols are required for the following reasons:
■ Inter-AS connections require more options for manual selection of routing characteristics.
 EGPs should be able to implement various policies.
■ The speed of convergence (distribution of routing information) and finding the best path to the destination are
crucial for intra-AS routing protocols.
 Therefore, EGP routing protocol metrics (used to measure paths to a destination) include more parameters to allow
the administrator to influence the selection of certain routing paths.
 EGPs are slower to converge and more complex to configure.
 IGPs use less-complicated metrics to ease configuration and speed up the decisions about best routing paths for faster
convergence. The
 “Routing Protocol Metrics” section later in this chapter defines and explains routing protocol
metrics.
 Cont…
KEY POINT
Because the Internet is based on the AS concept, two types of routing protocols are
required:
■ Interior gateway protocols (IGP) are intra-AS (inside an AS) routing protocols.
Examples of IGPs include Routing Information Protocol (RIP) version 1 (RIPv1), RIP version 2
(RIPv2), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), Integrated Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-
IS), and Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP).

■ Exterior gateway protocols (EGP) are inter-AS (between autonomous systems) routing protocols.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the only widely used EGP protocol on the Internet. BGP version 4
(BGP-4) is considered the acceptable version of BGP on the Internet. It is discussed in the “Border
Gateway Protocol” section
 Distance Vector Versus Link-State Versus Hybrid Protocols
 There are two main types of routing protocols:
■ Distance vector protocol: In a distance vector protocol, routing decisions are made on a hop by-
hop basis.
 Each router relies on its neighbor routers to make the correct routing decisions.
 The router passes only the results of this decision (its routing table) to its neighbors.
 Distance vector protocols are typically slower to converge and do not scale well; however, they are
easy to implement and maintain.
 Examples of distance vector protocols include RIPv1, RIPv2, and Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(IGRP).
Cont…
 ■ Link-state protocol: Each router floods information about itself (its link states) either to all
other routers in the network or to a part of the network (area).
 Each router makes its own routing decision based on all received information and using the
shortest path first (SPF) algorithm (also called the Dijkstra algorithm), which calculates the shortest
path to any destination. Link-state protocols are fast to converge, have less routing traffic overhead, and
scale well.
 However, because of their complexity, link-state protocols are more difficult to implement and
maintain.
 The IP link-state protocols are OSPF and Integrated IS-IS.
 When a network is using a distance vector routing protocol, all the routers periodically send their
routing tables, or a portion of their tables, to only their neighboring routers.
 In contrast, when a network is using a link-state routing protocol, each of the routers sends the state of
its own interfaces (its links) to all other routers, or to all routers in a part of the network known as an
area, only when there is a change.
 Routing Protocol Metrics
 metric is a value (such as path length) that routing protocols use to measure paths to a destination.
 If a routing protocol recognizes more than one way to reach a network, it compares the metric for
each different path and chooses the path with the lowest metric.
 If multiple paths have the same metric, the router can perform load balancing .

Routing Protocol Convergence

 Whenever a change occurs in a network’s topology, all the routers in that network must learn the
new topology.
 This process is both collaborative and independent; the routers share information with each other,
but they must calculate the impact of the topology change independently.
 Because they must mutually develop an independent agreement on the new topology, they are said to
converge on this consensus.
 Network convergence must occur whenever a new routing protocol starts and whenever a change
takes place in the network.
 Cont….
 A network is converged when all routing tables are synchronized and each contains a usable route to
each destination network.
 Convergence time is the time it takes for all routers in a network to agree on the current topology.
 The following can affect convergence time :-
o Size of the network,
o Routing protocol in use, and
o Network design,
EIGRP
 The limitations of RIP led to the development of more advanced protocols.
 Networking professionals required a protocol that would support VLSM
 Cisco developed EIGRP as a proprietary distance vector routing protocol.
 It has enhanced capabilities that address many of the limitations of other distance
vector protocols.
 EIGRP shares some of features of RIP, while employing many advanced features.

Cont…
EIGRP is a Cisco-proprietary protocol for routing IPv4;
 EIGRP can also be configured for routing IP version 6 (IPv6),
 EIGRP enhanced version of IGRP, which is a pure distance vector protocol.

EIGRP features include the following:

■ Uses triggered updates (EIGRP has no periodic updates).
■ Uses a topology table to keep all routes received from its neighbors, not only the best
routes.
■ Establishes adjacencies with neighboring routers using the Hello protocol.
■ Uses multicast, rather than broadcast, for communication.
■ Supports VLSM.
■ Supports manual route summarization
■ Can be used to create hierarchically structured, large networks.
■ Supports unequal-cost load balancing.
 EIGRP Terminology
■ Neighbor table: EIGRP routers use hello packets to discover neighbors.
 When a router discovers and forms an adjacency with a new neighbor, it includes the
neighbor’s address and interface in the neighbor table.
■ Topology table: When a router dynamically discovers a new neighbor, it sends an update about
the routes it knows to its new neighbor and receives the same from the new neighbor.
 These updates populate the topology table.
 The topology table contains all destinations advertised by neighboring routers;
 Each router stores its neighbors’ routing tables in its EIGRP topology table.

 An EIGRP router maintains a topology table for each network protocol configured
Cont.…
■ Advertised distance (AD) and feasible distance (FD): EIGRP uses the Diffusing Update
Algorithm (DUAL).
 DUAL uses distance information, known as a metric or cost, to select efficient loop-free paths.
 The lowest-cost route is calculated by adding the cost between the next-hop router and the destination
—referred to as the advertised distance—to the cost between the local router and the next-hop router.

■ Successor: A successor, also called a current successor, is a neighboring router that has a least-cost
path to a destination (the lowest FD(fusibility distance)) guaranteed not to be part of a routing loop.
 Multiple successors can exist if they have the same FD.

■ Routing table: The routing table holds the best routes to each destination and is used to forward
packets.
 Successor routes are offered to the routing table. The router maintains one routing table for each
network protocol.

Cont…..
EIGRP Characteristics
The characteristics that make EIGRP suitable for deployment in enterprise networks include the
following:
■ Fast convergence:
 ■ Improved scalability:
 ■ Use of VLSM: M.
■ Reduced bandwidth usage:.
■ Multiple network layer protocol support
 OSPF
 Enterprise networks and ISPs use link-state protocols because of their hierarchical design and
ability to scale for large networks.
 Distance vector routing protocols are usually not the right choice for a complex enterprise
network.
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an example of a link-state routing protocol.
 OSPF is an open standard routing protocol, developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) to support IP traffic.
 OSPF is a classless interior gateway protocol (IGP).

OSPF Characteristics
 Fast convergence:
 Very good scalability
 Reduced bandwidth usage
 VLSM support:
Cont….
 All OSPF networks begin with Area 0, also called the backbone area.
 As the network is expanded, other areas can be created that are adjacent to Area 0.
 These other areas can be assigned any number, up to 65,535. The maximum
number of routers allowed in one area is 50.
 OSPF has a two-layer hierarchical design. Area 0, also referred to as the
backbone area, exists at the top and all other areas are located at the next level.
 All non-backbone areas must directly connect to area 0.
 This group of areas creates an OSPF Autonomous System (AS)
 A router that connects an area to the backbone area is called an Area Border
Router (ABR).
 A router that connects an area to a different routing protocol, such as EIGRP, or
redistributes static routes into the OSPF area is called an Autonomous System
Border Router (ASBR).
Cont….
Cont.….
Routing Protocol Selection Decision