CH 16

Management
Fourteenth Edition
John R. Schermerhorn, Jr. Daniel G. Bachrach
Chapter 16
Motivation Theory and Practice
Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Planning Ahead — Learning Objectives
LO 16.1 Explain how individual needs motivate behavior.

LO 16.2 Contrast how expectancy, equity, goal-setting, and self-
efficacy motivate behavior.
LO 16.3 Discuss the motivational implications of reinforcement
principles and strategies.
LO 16.4 Summarize the motivational implications of job designs
and work schedules.
Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2

Chapter 16 Outline (1 of 2)
1. Individual Needs and Motivation

o Hierarchy of needs theory
o ERG theory
o Two-factor theory
o Acquired needs theory
2. Process Theories of Motivation
o Equity theory
o Expectancy theory
o Goal-setting theory
o Self-efficacy theory
Chapter 16 Outline (2 of 2)
3. Reinforcement Theory
o The law of effect
o Reinforcement strategies
o Positive reinforcement
o Punishment
4. Motivation and Job Design
o Job simplification
o Job enrichment
o Alternative work schedules

Individual Needs and Motivation (1 of 11)
Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the

level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work

Needs
• Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an
individual
• Explain workplace behavior and attitudes
• Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior
• Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need
satisfaction

• Hierarchy of needs theory

o Developed by Abraham Maslow
o Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior
and attitudes
o Lower-order needs:
• Physiological, safety, and social needs
• Desires for physical and social well being
o Higher-order needs:
• Esteem and self-actualization needs
• Desire for psychological growth and development
Figure 16.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs

• Hierarchy of needs theory

o Deficit principle
• A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior
o Progression principle
• A need at one level does not become activated until the next
lower-level need is satisfied

• ERG theory
o Developed by Clayton Alderfer
o Three need levels
• Existence needs
o desires for physiological and material well-being
• Relatedness needs
o desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships
• Growth needs
o desires for continued psychological growth and development
• ERG theory
o Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time
o Frustration-regression principle
• An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a
higher-level need is frustrated

• Two-factor theory
o Developed by Frederick Herzberg
o Hygiene factors:
• Elements of the job context
• Sources of job dissatisfaction
o Satisfier factors:
• Elements of the job content
• Sources of job satisfaction and motivation

Figure 16.2: Elements in Herzberg’s Two-factor
Theory

• Acquired needs theory
o Developed by David McClelland
o People acquire needs through their life experiences
o Needs that are acquired:


o Need for Achievement (nAch)
• Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve
problems, or to master complex tasks
o People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
• Involves individual responsibility for results
• Involves achievable but challenging goals
• Provides feedback on performance


o Need for Power (nPower)
• Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to
be responsible for other people
• Personal power versus social power
o People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
• Involves control over other persons
• Has an impact on people and events
• Brings public recognition and attention


o Need for Affiliation (nAff)
• Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with
other persons
o People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
• Involves interpersonal relationships
• Provides for companionship
• Brings social approval

Process Theories of Motivation (1 of 15)
• Process theories of motivation …

o How people make choices to work hard or not
o Choices are based on:
• Individual preferences
• Available rewards
• Possible work outcomes
• Types of process theories:
o Equity theory
o Expectancy theory
o Goal-setting theory
• Equity theory
o Developed by J. Stacy Adams
o When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in
comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and
restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation
• Perceived inequity
• Perceived equity

Figure 16.3: Equity Theory and the Role of Social
Comparison

• Equity and social comparison

o People compare their ratio of outcomes-to-inputs to the
outcomes-to-inputs ratio of another (a referent)

• Over-reward inequity (positive inequity) occurs when an

individual perceives that rewards received are more than
what is fair for work inputs
• Under-reward inequity (negative inequity) occurs when an
individual perceives that rewards received are less than what
is fair for work inputs

• Equity theory
o People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing:
• Work inputs
• Rewards received
• Referent’s inputs or outcomes
• Comparison points
• Situation

• Expectancy theory
o Developed by Victor Vroom
o Key expectancy theory variables:
• Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level
of performance
• Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be
followed by rewards
• Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work
related outcomes

Figure 16.4: Elements in the Expectancy Theory of
Motivation

• Expectancy theory
o Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence
(V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:
Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low

• Managerial implications of expectancy theory

o To maximize expectancy, managers should:
• Select workers with ability
• Train workers to use ability
• Support work efforts
• Clarify performance goals


o To maximize instrumentality, managers should:
• Clarify psychological contracts
• Communicate performance-outcome possibilities
• Identify rewards that are contingent on performance


o To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should:
• Use content theories
• Increase communication
• Link needs/desires with rewards

• Goal-setting theory
o Developed by Edwin Locke
o Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly
motivating
o Motivational effects of task goals:
• Provide direction to people in their work
• Clarify performance expectations
• Establish a frame of reference for feedback
• Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management

• How to Make Goal Setting Work for You:

o Set specific goals
o Set challenging goals
o Build goal acceptance and commitment
o Clarify goal priorities
o Provide feedback on goal accomplishment
o Reward goal accomplishment

• Goal-setting theory
o Participation in goal setting
• unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting
• management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation
• when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively
if supervisory trust and support exist

• Self-Efficacy Theory
o a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
o Capability directly affects motivation
• higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy
• self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting

• Self-Efficacy Theory
o Enactive mastery
• person gains confidence through positive experience
o Vicarious modeling
• learning by observing others
o Verbal persuasion
• encouragement from others that one can perform a task
o Emotional arousal
• high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation

Reinforcement Theory (1 of 8)
• Fundamentals of reinforcement theory

o Focuses on the impact of external environmental
consequences on behavior
o Law of effect — behavior followed by pleasant consequences is
likely to be repeated: behavior followed by unpleasant
consequences is not

• Operant conditioning:
o Developed by B.F. Skinner
o Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its
consequences

• Operant conditioning strategies:

o Positive reinforcement
• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent
presentation of a pleasant consequence
o Negative reinforcement
• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent
removal of an unpleasant consequence

• Operant conditioning strategies:

o Punishment
• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent
presentation of an unpleasant consequence
o Extinction
• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent
removal of an pleasant consequence

• Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based

on
o Law of contingent reinforcement —
• Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited
o Law of immediate reinforcement —
• More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement
value it has

• Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:

o Clearly identify desired work behaviors
o Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards
o Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards
o Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards
o Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement

• Schedules of reinforcement:
o Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a
desired behavior occurs
o Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically
o Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous reinforcement
o Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more
permanent
o Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive
reinforcement of successive approximations to it

• Guidelines for using punishment:

o Tell the person what is being done wrong
o Tell the person what is being done right
o Match the punishment to the behavior
o Administer punishment in private
o Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement

Figure 16.6: Four Reinforcement Strategies: Case of
Total Quality Management

Motivation and Job Design (1 of 17)
• Job design
o The process of arranging work tasks for individuals and groups
o Jobs should be designed so that both performance and
satisfaction result

• Job simplification
o Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-
defined and highly specialized tasks
o Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth
o Automation
• Total mechanization of a job
• Most extreme form of job simplification

• Potential advantages of job simplification:

o Easier and quicker training of workers
o Workers are less difficult to supervise
o Workers are easier to replace
o Development of expertise in doing repetitive tasks
• Potential disadvantages of job simplification:
o Productivity suffers
o Cost increases due to absenteeism/ turnover of unhappy workers
o Poor performance may result from worker boredom/ alienation

• Job rotation and job enlargement:

o Expands job scope
o Job rotation
• Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs
involving different task assignments
o Job enlargement
• Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously
assigned to separate workers
• Horizontal loading

• Job enrichment
o Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by
expanding its content
o Increases job depth by adding work planning duties normally
performed by a supervisor

• Focuses attention on the extent to which five core job

characteristics are present in a job:
o Skill variety
o Task identity
o Task significance
o Autonomy
o Feedback

Figure 16.7 Job Design Essentials using the Job
Characteristics Model

• How to improve core job characteristics:

o Form natural units of work
o Combine tasks
o Establish client relationships
o Open feedback channels
o Practice vertical loading


• Alternative Work Schedules: Flexible working hours

o Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the
pattern of their daily work hours
• Core time — all employees must be at work
• Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and
family responsibilities

• Potential benefits of flexible working hours:

o People have greater autonomy in work scheduling while
ensuring maintenance of work responsibilities
o Organizations can attract and retain employees who have
special non-work responsibilities
o Worker morale may be improved

• Alternative Work Schedules: Compressed workweek

o Allows a full-time job to be completed in less than the standard
5 days of 8-hour shifts
• Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting costs, lower
absenteeism, and potentially improved performance
• Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment problems,
increased scheduling problems

• Alternative Work Schedules: Job sharing

o One full-time job is split between two or more persons
o Potential advantages of job sharing: organizations benefit by
employing talented people who are unable/unwilling to
commit full-time

• Alternative Work Schedules: Telecommuting

o A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work
hours to be completed outside of the office
o Hoteling
o Virtual offices

• Potential advantages of telecommuting:

o Freedom from
• Constraints of commuting
• Fixed hours
• Special work attire
• Direct contact with supervisors
o Increased productivity
o Fewer distractions
o Being one’s own boss
o Having more personal time
• Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:

o Working too much
o Having less personal time
o Difficulty in separating work and personal life
o Less time for family
o Feelings of isolation
o Loss of visibility for promotion
o Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a
distance

• Contingency workers
o Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often on
a long-term basis
• Part-time work
o Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour
workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee
• Independent contractors
o Employed in temporary gigs as just-in-time and as-needed workers.
• Permatemp
o Workers that hold part-time and contract jobs without hope for
long-term security.
• Implications of part-time work:
o Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labor costs
and dealing with cyclical labor demands
o Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less
productive
o Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive
important fringe benefits

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Copyright © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Management

Motivation Theory and Practice

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

LO 16.1 Explain how individual needs motivate behavior.

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2

1. Individual Needs and Motivation

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4

Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 5

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6

• Hierarchy of needs theory

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 8

• Hierarchy of needs theory

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 9

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 11

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 13

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 14

• Acquired needs theory

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• Acquired needs theory

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 16

• Acquired needs theory

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 17

• Process theories of motivation …

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 19

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 20

• Equity and social comparison

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 21

• Over-reward inequity (positive inequity) occurs when an

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 22

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Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 26

• Managerial implications of expectancy theory

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 27

• Managerial implications of expectancy theory

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 28

• Managerial implications of expectancy theory

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 29

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• How to Make Goal Setting Work for You:

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 31

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• Fundamentals of reinforcement theory

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• Operant conditioning strategies:

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• Operant conditioning strategies:

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 38

• Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 39

• Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 40

Copyright ©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 41

• Guidelines for using punishment: