METHOD OF TUNNELLING IN HARD STRATA (ROCK)

9.1 Sequence of operation for construction of tunnel in rocky strata.

i. Drilling,
ii. Blasting,
iii. Inspection and handling misfire,
iv. mucking,
v. Time distribution for various operations.
 TUNNELLING IN ROCK
9.2 Methods
• Full face method,
• Heading and bench method,
• drift method

9.3 Tunnel shafts & caissons:

I. Introduction,
II. Timber shaft,
III. Rock shaft,
IV. steel lining for shaft,
V. Drop caissons.
 INVESTIGATIONS MADE AT THE TIME OF TUNNELLING

• Drilling holes by percussion, rotary percussion and rotary

• Rotary or Rotary Percussion methods – loose soils
• Rotary Drilling – rocky soils
• Spacing – 300-500m ; reduced to 50-100 m in
• geologically disturbed areas
• Lateral Spacing – 10-15m from C/L of tunnel
• Depth – 20-50 m deeper than proposed invert level of tunnel
 INFLUENCING FACTORS
1) Type of rock
a) Igneous
b) Sedimentary
c) Metamorphic
2) Rock Hardness
3) Rock Brittleness
4) Extent of existing fractures and planes of weakness
 SHAFTS

• For detailed undisturbed observations, shafts can be

excavated
• vertical or inclined tunnel excavated to reach and to get
information for the area surrounding proposed tunnel
and tunnel section
• Section of 3m x 1.5 m to 3 m x 2m
• Minimum depth of excavation
• Temporary and Permanent Shafts
• Heading
– Part of tunnel cross section excavated for small lengths
– can be top, bottom or side excavation- part of c/s
• Drift
– Part of tunnel cross- section excavated for entire length of
tunnel
 Heading & drift give information about
1) Rock Stratification
2) Thickness of layers
3) Constituents ,Structure and Texture of rock
4) Hardness
5) Temperature
6) Underground water levels
7) Presence of foul gases
8) Effect of earthquake and artificial vibrations
9) Possibility of land slides and rock falls
 EXCAVATION
• Drilling of Holes
• Percussions Drills – Jack hammer, Tripod,
• Drifter,
• Churn
• Abrasion Drills – Shot, Diamond Fusion Piercing
• Special Drills – Implosion, Explosion
 BLASTING
• Types of Explosives
i. Straight Dynamites
ii. Ammonia Dynamites
iii.Ammonia - Gelatine Semi – Gelatine
iv.Blasting Agents Slurries or water jets
• Theory of Blasting
i. Impact, Abrasion,
ii. Thermally Induced Spalling,
iii.Fusion and Vaporization,
iv. Chemical Reaction
 TUNNELING METHODS

• Heating and quenching (old technique)

• Drilling
i. Percussion drills (penetrate rock by impact action alone)
ii. Rotary drills (cut by turning a bit under pressure against
the rock face)
iii. Rotary-Percussion drills (combine rotary and percussion
action)
• Blasting- Primary blasting vs Secondary blasting
• Explosives
• Dynamite (expensive)
• Ammonium Nitrate (cheaper but not good in water
logged areas)
• Slurries (mixture of explosives, gel and water)
 SHAFT TUNNEL
• Shafts are the vertical tunnels, generally circular in section. In case of the
hydro projects the surge shafts are necessary to prevent the water
hemorrhage. In the highway projects surge shafts are constructed from the
top to reach down to the main tunnel and provides the access path to the
main tunnels.
• A numbers of shafts may be constructed at places more than one in a long
tunnel project, and work may be started from those numbers of places.
Diameter of a shaft depends upon the purpose of the shaft, if a TBM is to be
lowered to the main tunnel than it is necessary to make the shaft of the
required size
 PILOT TUNNELS
• Pilot tunnels serves as the access tunnels to the main tunnels.
• The cross section of a pilot tunnel is usually 240 cm or a little bigger.
• Pilot tunnels are driven parallel to the main tunnel.
• The pilot tunnel is first driven to the full length of the tunnel and is connected
to the center line of the main tunnel at many points.
• From these points, the work of the main tunnel may be started.
• Used to take out the muck.
 USES OF THE PILOT TUNNELS
1)It helps in providing proper ventilation to the main tunnel.
2)It helps in removing the muck from the main tunnel
quickly.
3)It helps in providing proper lighting in the main tunnel.
4)Pilot tunnels also offers a path to reach to the main tunnel
so that you can access it to go for the further
construction.
 DRILL AND BLAST METHOD
• Used for the excavation throughout the world.
• Used in all types of rocks.
• The initial cost is lower than the mechanical method like TBM.
• Involves the use of explosives.
• Compared with bored tunneling by TBM, blasting generally
results in higher duration of vibration levels.
• The excavation rate is also less than TBM (usually 3 to 5m a
day).
• The typical cycle of excavation by blasting is performed in the
following steps:
• Drilling blast holes and loading them with explosives.
• Detonating the blast, followed by ventilation to remove blast fumes.
• Removal of the blasted rock (mucking).
• Scaling crown and walls to remove loosened pieces of rock.
• Installing initial ground support.
• Advancing rail, ventilation, and utilities.
• Advantages:
• Potential environmental impacts in terms of noise, dust and visual on sensitive receives are significantly
reduced and are restricted to those located near the tunnel portal;
• Compared with the cut-and-cover approach, quantity of C&D materials generated would be much
reduced;
• Compared with the cut-and-cover approach, disturbance to local traffic and associated environmental
impacts would be much reduced;
• Blasting would significantly reduce the duration of vibration, though the vibration level would be higher
compared with bored tunnelling;
• Disadvantages:
• Potential hazard associated with establishment of a temporary magazine site for overnight storage of
explosives shall be addressed through avoiding populated areas in the site selection process.
 DRILLING AND BLASTING METHOD SEQUENCES

1- Drilling
• A jumbo is used to drill holes in the rock face. This one has three drilling
arms and an operator tower. It is run by electric cable; a hose brings
water to the drills. The drills are pneumatic. That means that the drill bits
both hammer and rotate. Broken bits of rock are flushed out by water.
These drill holes are 2.4-3.6 metres long.
• The first sets are straight holes (parallel cut) located around the edge of
the face and in the middle. A second set (V-cut) is angled toward the
center. These allow the rock to be blown away from the face into the drift
(tunnel).
 LOADING AND BLASTING

• The drill holes are now filled with explosives, detonators are attached to the
explosive devices and the individual explosive devices are connected to one
another.
• The holes are blasted in a proper sequence, from the center outward, one
after the other. Although more than 100 explosions may be set off, one after
the other, the blast sequence is completed in several seconds.
• The devices should not explode at the same time, but rather one after the
other at specified intervals.
• Only when the blast master has ensured that nobody is left in the danger
zone can the explosion be triggered by the blasting machine.
 VENTILATING

• The blast causes lots of rock to be flung through the tunnel,

dispersing clouds of dust that then mix with the combustion
gases of the explosion.
• To resume work in the tunnel, the bad air must be removed from
the tunnel. This is done by using so-called air-ducting systems,
long steel or plastic pipes, which are attached to the roof of the
tunnel and blow fresh air onto the working face.
• This gives rise to localized excess pressure and the bad air is
pushed towards the tunnel exit.
 DISLODGING

• Dislodging refers to the stripping away and removal of

loose pieces of rock, which were not completely released
from the rock during the blasting procedure. This working
step is completed by a robust tunnel excavator.
 5. REMOVING RUBBLE

• After the loose pieces of rock have been dislodged from

the working face, the blasted material – the rubble or
spoil – is carried out of the tunnel.
• The material is either loaded onto dump trucks with wheel
loaders and taken from the tunnel to an outside landfill or
it is transported from the site of excavation to the landfill
on conveyer belts.
 SECURING

• The quickly drying shotcrete used for this purpose in

particular enables a cavity-free connection of the securing
mechanism to the rock. Depending on the type of rock, a
variety of securing measures can be implemented: wire
mesh, tunnel arches, stakes or so-called bolts, which can
be driven into the rock.
Continued….
• The final method for stabilizing rock faces is most commonly rock bolting.
• A jumbo is used here to first drill holes into the rock.
• The holes vary from 2.4-6 metres long.
• A steel rod with a wedge threaded on the end is inserted in the hole.
• When it is in place, the rod is turned so that it pulls out against the
wedge, forcing it into the walls of the hole at the required spacing.
• The outside end of the rod is secured with a steel plate and large nut.
Continued…

• Under the poorest ground conditions it may be necessary

to put steel arches in place to hold up the walls and roof
of a tunnel.
• In other situations a steel mesh may be secured to the
walls and roof to prevent other loose materials from
falling on workers below.
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
• Geological mapping is the process of a geologist physically
going out into the field and recording geological
information from the rocks that outcrop at the working
face of Tunnel.
 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING REPORT
a) boundaries between different rock types.
b) structures e.g fault-lines and evidence of the rocks undergoing deformation.
c) whether rocks dip in a flat or steep manner,
d) whether they are folded or even broken.
e) the angle of incidence and direction of incidence of the rock structures.
f) the strength of the rock,
g) mountain water infiltration if any.
h) The mapping report created from this – with sketches and photos – serves as
the basis for the selection of appropriate supporting measures.
 DRILLING PATERN DESIGN
• The drilling pattern ensures the distribution of the explosive in the
rock and desired blasting result.
• Design factors of the drilling pattern:
a) Rock drillability and blastability,
b) The type of explosives,
c) Blast vibration restrictions
d) Accuracy requirements of the blasted wall etc.
DRILLING PATTERN DESIGN IN TUNNELING AND
DRIFTING IS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS:

a. Tunnel dimensions
b. Tunnel geometry
c. Hole size
d. Final quality requirements
e. Geological and rock mechanical conditions
f. Explosives availability and means of detonation
g. Expected water leaks
h. Vibration restrictions
i. Drilling equipment
 TUNNELING IN HARD ROCK

• Full face method,

• Heading and bench method,
• drift method
• Tunnel shafts & caissons:
 FULL FACE METHOD,
• The full face method is normally selected for small tunnels whose
dimensions do not exceed 3 m.
• In this method, the full face or the entire facade of the tunnel is tackled at
the same time.
• Vertical columns are erected at the face of the tunnel and a large number of
drills mounted or fixed on these columns at a suitable height as shown in
Fig. 3.2.
• A series of holes measuring 10 mm to 40 mm in diameter with about 1.2 m
centre-to-centre distance are then drilled into the rock, preferably in two
rows.
• These holes are charged with explosives and ignited.
• Next the muck is removed before repeating the process of drilling holes.
 FULL FACE METHOD,
Points to be kept in mind-
a) For tunnel of small c/s through stable and self-supporting rocks
b) This is a continuous method
c) Tunnel upto 3 m is handled properly
d) For small c/s area diameter less than 6m and face area less than 19
m ２ length not more than 3m
e) For large size tunnel popular size of hole vary from 10mm to
40mm & holes are drill are spacing of 120mm c/c
f) This section minimize settlement
 ADVANTAGES
(a) Since an entire section of the tunnel is tackled at
one time, the method is completed
expeditiously.
(b) Mucking tracks, which are tracks used for
collecting muck, can be laid on the tunnel floor and
extended as the work progresses.
(c) With the development of the 'jumbo' or drill
carriage, this method can be used for larger tunnels
too.
 DISADVANTAGES
(a) The method requires heavy mechanical
equipment.
(b) It is not very suitable for unstable rocks.
(c) It can normally be adopted for small tunnels
only
 HEADING AND BENCH METHOD
• In this method, the heading (top or upper half) of the tunnel is
bored first and then the bench (bottom or lower half) follows.
• The heading portion lies about 3.70 m to 4.60 m ahead of the
bench portion.
• In hard rock, the drill holes for the bench are driven at the
same time as the removal of the muck.
• The hard rock permits the roof to stay in place without supports.
 ADVANTAGES

• (a) The work of drilling of holes for the explosives

and the removal of muck can progress
simultaneously.
• (b) This method requires the use of lower quantities
of gunpowder than the full face method
 DRIFT METHOD
• A drift is a small tunnel measuring 3 m x 3 m, which is driven into the
rock.
• A number of drill holes are provided all around the drift and these are
filled up with explosives and ignited.
• The size of the drift expands to become equal to the required cross
section of the tunnel.
• The position of the drift may be in the centre, top, bottom, or side.
• The central drift offers better ventilation and requires lower quantities
of explosives.
• The side drift has the advantage that it permits the use of timber to
support the roof.
 ADVANTAGES
• (a) If the quality of the rock is bad or if it contains
excessive water, this is detected in advance and corrective
measures can then be taken in time.
• (b) A drift assists in the ventilation of tunnels.
• (c) The quantity of explosives required is less.
• (d) A side drift allows the use of timber to support the
roof.
 DISADVANTAGES
• (a) It is a time-consuming process, as the excavation of
the main tunnel gets delayed till the drift is completed.
• (b) The cost of drilling and removing the muck from the
drift is high, as the work has to be done using manually
operated power-driven equipment.
 PILOT TUNNEL METHOD

• This method normally involves the digging of two tunnels, namely, a

pilot tunnel and a main tunnel.
• The cross section of the pilot tunnel usually measures about 2.4 m x
2.4 m.
• The pilot tunnel is driven parallel to the main tunnel and connected
to the centre line of the main tunnel with cross cuts at many points.
• The main tunnel is then excavated from a number of points. The pilot
tunnel offers the following.
 Advantages of Pilot Tunnel Method
a) It helps in removing the muck from the main tunnel
quickly.
b) It helps in providing proper ventilation and lighting in the
main tunnel.
c) The method, however, requires the construction of an
additional tunnel
d) Therefore the time and cost of construction are higher as
compared to the methods described before.
 TUNNEL BORING MACHINE (TBM)
• TBM (tunnel borings machine) is one of the very very important
machine for making of tunnel in present time.
• It can make tunnel through any type of soil conditions and even
through rocks also.
• A tunnel boring machine(TBM) also known as a "mole", is a
machine used to excavate tunnels with a circular cross section
through a variety of soil and rock strata.
• They can bore through anything from hard rock to sand.
 TBM
• Tunnel diameters can range from a meter (done with micro-TBMs) to 19.25 m
to date.
• Tunnels of less than a meter or so in diameter are typically done using
trenchless construction methods or horizontal directional drilling rather than
TBMs.
• Tunnel boring machines are used as an alternative to drilling and blasting
(D&B) methods in rock and conventional "hand mining" in soil.
• TBMs have the advantages of limiting the disturbance to the surrounding
ground and producing a smooth tunnel wall.
• This significantly reduces the cost of lining the tunnel, and makes them
suitable to use in heavily urbanized areas.
• The major disadvantage is the upfront cost.
• TBMs are expensive to construct,
• difficult to transport.
• As modern tunnels become longer, the cost of tunnel boring

machines versus drill and blast is actually less-this is

because tunneling with TBMs is much more efficient and results
in a shorter project.
 HARD ROCK TBMS
• In hard rock, either shielded or open-type TBMs can be used.
• All types of hard rock TBMs excavate rock using disc cutters mounted in
the cutter head.
• The disc cutters create compressive stress fractures in the rock, causing
it to chip away from the rock in front of the machine, called the tunnel
face.
• The excavated rock, known as muck, is transferred through openings in
the cutter head to a belt conveyor, where it runs through the machine
to a system of conveyors or muck cars for removal from the tunnel.
Continued…
• Open-type TBMs have no shield, leaving the area behind the cutter head open for
rock support.
• To advance, the machine uses a gripper system that pushes against the side walls of
the tunnel.
• The machine can be continuously steered while gripper shoes push on the side-walls
to react the machine’s forward thrust.
• At the end of a stroke, the rear legs of the machine are lowered, the grippers and
propel cylinders are retracted. The retraction of the propel cylinders repositions the
gripper assembly for the next boring cycle. The grippers are extended, the rear legs
lifted, and boring begins again.
• The open-type, or Main Beam, TBM does not install concrete segments behind it as
other machines do. Instead, the rock is held up using ground support methods such
as ring beams, rock bolts, shotcrete, steel straps, and wire mesh.