Basics Of Electricity

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 History

HISTORY OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

• Thomas A. Edison, Father of electric light in 1882
• Frank Julian Sprague, Produced dc motor for Edison systems in 1884
• Nikola Tesla, Father of two-phase ac induction and synchronous motors in
1888
• William Stanley, Father of commercially practical transformer 1885/86

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 Witam wszystkich zebranych na seminarjum
poświęconym podstawom elektryczności…

Well, I know sometimes it feels like we speak

foreign language…
And sometimes even simple concepts are
presented in a quite confusing way…

I hope that this presentation will help you to

understand electricity and make selling
2008 Amprobe products easier Basics Of Electricity Seminar
 Basics
Electrons
Electrons are the smallest and lightest of the particles in an atom. Electrons are in
constant motion as they circle around the nucleus of that atom. Electrons are said to
have a negative charge, which means that they seem to be surrounded by a kind of
invisible force field. This is called an electrostatic field.

Protons
They are much larger and heavier than electrons. Protons have a positive electrical
charge. This positively charged electrostatic field is exactly the same strength as the
electrostatic field in an electron, but it is opposite in polarity. Notice the negative electron
and the positive proton have the same number of force field lines in each of the
diagrams. In other words, the proton is exactly as positive as the electron is
negative.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 Basics

Like charges repel, unlike charges attract

• Two electrons repel each other because both have a negative electrical
charge.
• Two protons repel each other because they both have a positive
charge.
• Electrons and protons attract each other because of their unlike
charges.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Voltage
Mathematical definition
The electrical potential difference is
defined as the amount of work
needed to move a unit
electric charge from the second
point to the first, or equivalently,
the amount of work that a unit
charge flowing from the first point
to the second can perform. The
potential difference between two
points a and b is the line integral of
the electric field E:

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
Basic Electric Circuit

I
E – Voltage (V)
I – Current (A)
V R
R – Resistance
(Ω)

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Volts, Amps, Ohms – Simple!

I - current Ω (Ohm) - Resistance

Air Flow Air Valve
Air tool

Pressure Air tank

V - voltage

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 Basics
VOLTAGE (V)
• Voltage is the difference of electrical potential
between two points of an electrical circuit, expressed
in volts.
• Electromotive force, or EMF - the force that causes the
electrons to move in an electrical circuit .
• An electric potential difference must exist for current to flow in an
electric circuit.
• VA - VD = 12 - 0 = 12 V

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 Basics
Electrical Current and Amperage (A)
• Electrical Current is defined as a flow
(movement) of electrons.
• Current is measured in units called Amperes
or Amps.
• Amperage is a term used to describe the number of
electrons moving past a fixed point in a conductor in
one second.

• Since we cannot count electrons by hand, we need an

Ammeter, the instrument measuring the electrons
flow

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 Basics
Resistance Symbol
• Resistance - measured in units
called Ohms (Ω) .
• It describes the forces that
oppose the flow of electron
current in a conductor.
• All materials naturally contain
some resistance to the flow of
electron current, some more, Formula
some less…
where L represents the length of the wire (in
meters), A represents the cross-sectional area
of the wire (in meters2), and ρ represents the
resistivity of the material (in ohm•meter).
2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
 Basics
Resistance

Is resistance good or bad?

• It can be both good and bad. If we want to transmit
electricity from one place to another through a conductor,
resistance is undesirable in the conductor. It causes some
of the electrical energy to turn into heat.
• However, it is resistance that allows us to use
electricity for heat and light. The heat that is generated
from electric
heaters or the light that we get from light bulbs is due to
resistance.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 Basics
Conductors and Insulators
• Conductors - materials that have free electrons and allow
electrical current to flow easily (e.i. copper, aluminum).
These materials have LOW resistance for electric current.
• Insulators - materials that do not have free electrons (e.i.
glass, plastic, rubber, air). They have HIGH resistance
for electric current.
– Insulators are used to protect us from the dangerous
effects of electricity flowing through conductors.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 Basics
Electromagnetic fields
• The term electromagnetism is defined as the production of
a magnetic field by current flowing in a conductor.

• The magnetic field around the conductor flows in closed

loops.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 Basics
Field Intensity
• The term field intensity is used to describe the strength of
the magnetic field.
• Field intensity is determined by the amount
Of current flowing in the wire.
• “The right-hand rule” is the simplest way
To determine the direction of the
electromagnetic field

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Quiz
• Who invented the light bulb?

In addressing the question "Who invented the

incandescent lamp?" historians Robert Friedel and
Paul Israel list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps
prior to Swan and Edison. They conclude that
Edison's version was able to outstrip the others
because of a combination of factors: an effective
incandescent material, a higher vacuum than
others were able to achieve and a high resistance
lamp that made power distribution from a
centralized source economically viable.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 AC / DC

In the DC circuit current flows in one direction. On the other

hand the AC power sources “pump” current “back and forth”.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

AC vs. DC signal

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

RMS (don’t confuse with True RMS!)

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Distorted Sinewave…

If we use a standard average sensing meter on a distorted sine wave

the measuring error can reach over 30% (usually these meters tend
to measure lower). So instead of displaying 120V at the receptacle,
you may read as low as 90V! This is a huge measuring error!

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

RMS vs. True RMS devices
RMS devices use various methods of approximating RMS value.
These methods work well for purely sinusoidal signals (ideal world),
but they will give erroneous results when measuring distorted signals
(real world). Example: average sensing meter.
True RMS devices use a more accurate and robust method that gives
better measurements of distorted signals.
Accurate measurement is essential for proper design and maintenance
of electrical networks (inaccurate measurement leads to
underutilization or overloading).

N
RMS  1.11*
Avg
TRMS 1
N a 2
n
 1

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Capacitance

• A capacitor is an electrical/electronic device that can store energy

in the electric field between a pair of conductors (called "plates").
The process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as
"charging", and involves electric charges of equal magnitude, but
opposite polarity, building up on each plate.
• Capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuits as
energy-storage devices. They can also be used to differentiate
between high-frequency and low-frequency signals. This property
makes them useful in electronic filters.
• Capacitance is a measure of the amount of electric charge
stored (or separated) for a given electric potential.
• The SI unit of capacitance is the farad; 1 farad = 1 coulomb per volt.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Inrush Current
• Inrush current or input
surge current refers to the
maximum, instantaneous
input current drawn by an
electrical device when first
turned on.
• AC electric motors and
transformers may draw
several times their normal
full-load current when first
energized, for a few cycles of
the input waveform.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Duty Cycle
• Duty cycle is the proportion of time during which a component,
device, or system is operated.
• Suppose a disk drive operates for 1 second, and is shut off for 99 seconds,
then is run for 1 second again, and so on. The drive runs for one out of 100
seconds, or 1/100 of the time, and its duty cycle is therefore 1/100, or 1
percent.

D - duty cycle;
τ - duration that the function
is non-zero;
Τ - period of the function.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Temperature
Where Gabriel Fahrenheit was Born?

German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit was born in

Gdansk (Danzig), Poland

What reference Fahrenheit used to establish 0 degrees on his

scale?

There are a few competing versions of the story. One of them

states that Fahrenheit recorded the lowest outdoor
temperatures he could measure during harsh winter of
1708 through 1709 in his hometown of Danzig (now
Gdańsk, Poland) (−17.8 °C) as his zero point. He was
later able to reach this temperature under laboratory
conditions using a mixture of ice, sodium chloride and
water.
2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
Voltage & current basics – amplitude,
frequency and RMS.

Amplitude (Peak) – the

maximum magnitude of a
periodic waveform.
Frequency – number of
cycles per unit time (per
second = Hz).

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Voltage amplitude disturbances
Sag/swell – decrease/increase in voltage value for a short
period of time (~1/2 cycle to 1 minute).
Spike – very short-duration (microsecond to millisecond),
high-amplitude (maximum of 200V to 6000V) change in
voltage. These can be disastrous for unprotected,
sensitive electronic equipment.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 Three-Phase systems
• Two main types in the US called Delta and Wye

• Delta system ( 3- Phase 3- Wire) named after the

schematic resemblance of the windings to the Greek letter
Delta
– three independent transformer or generator
windings that are connected head to toe - no
single point common to all phases.
– Single voltage level available - the Phase to
Phase voltages.
– Other voltages can be obtained only by using
step-up or step-down transformers.

• Wye system ( 3- Phase 4- Wire) named after the

schematic resemblance of the windings to the letter Wye
(Y)
– three, independent transformer or generator
windings that are connected at a common point,
called a neutral or star point.
– Wye connected power has two different voltages
available.
• The Phase to Phase voltage is the main
system voltage (typically 208 VAC or 480
VAC in the United States).
2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
• The Phase to Neutral voltage is also
 Three-Phase systems

• In a three-phase system, three circuit

conductors carry three alternating
currents (legs), with 120 degrees “phase
shift” between them
• Why three phase? A three-phase system
uses less conductor material to transmit
electric power than equivalent
single-phase, two-phase, or direct-current
systems at the same voltage.
•“Phase sequence” is a term
describing the order of the phases

Most domestic loads are single phase. In North
America and some other countries, three phase power
generally does not enter domestic houses at all. Even
in areas where it does, it is typically split out at the main
distribution board.
Phase sequence – Red, Blue, Black
Note: If you connect the three phase motor with
incorrect phase sequence, the motor will
spin backwards destroying the pumps or other
machinery is it used with. It is a very costly
mistake!

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

2 + 2 = 4?

S  VRMS IRMS
Reactive power (Q)
)
er (S
w
t po
n
S P2  Q2 p are
Ap

S - apparent power, θ
P – active power,
Working power (W)
Q - reactive power
The first formula is only valid for non-distorted
waveforms
2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
Peak Demand or “Energy on Demand”
Peak Demand – If a Power Plant is not able to supply enough energy using their
regular resources; they need to produce or deliver additional energy on demand.
The cost of such energy is higher. The cost is calculated based on the maximum
value of average power measured in 15 or 30 minutes intervals with a rate of 1
second, throughout 30 days time. The Demand is measured in Watts [W] or Volt- Amps
[VA] depending on the energy provider.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Energy
• Energy is power used over time. Energy, like power, can
be active, reactive or apparent.
• Active Energy – it is active power consumed over
time. It is measured in Watt Hours [Wh]
• Reactive Energy – it is reactive power consumed over
time. It is measured in Volt-Amp-Reactive Hours [VARh].
Apparent Energy – it is apparent power consumed
• over time. It is measured in Volt-Amp hours [VAh].

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Power Factor
• Power Factor – is a measure of how efficient a system is.
– Displacement Power Factor is related to the efficiency cased by
phase shift between voltage and current
– True Power Factor describes the total efficiency of the system
including total harmonic distortion and phase shift.
• Power factor is measured from 0 to 1.

The lowest efficiency is with Power Factor = 0 (0%) – meaning we

loose all energy, and the highest is 1 (100% efficient system),
meaning we use all produced energy.

Power factor of 0.5 describes system, which is 50% efficient,

Power factor of 0.95 describes system, which is 95% efficient. And so on…

The bottom line is: the higher the power factor, the better!

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Power Factor Correction
Displacement Power Factor
Let’s see how we can make electrical systems more
efficient and save on energy bills. To do so we
need to learn how different types of loads affect
our Power Factors.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Resistive loads
The “resistive” loads do not
create a phase-shift. The
voltage and current on
above drawing are
“inphase”, meaning that
they cross the X (time) axis
in the same places. Such a
system is very efficient,
with a Displacement Power
Factor of 1 (100% efficient)
since there is no Reactive
power present.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Inductive loads
The inductive loads cause current to
lag the voltage. Motors are good
examples of such loads. Motors create
Reactive power, which affects the
power factor in a negative way. The
more motors you connect to the system
the more energy you are loosing. Due
to this very reason the Displacement
Power Factor can be as low as 0.6
(sometimes even lower), meaning that
only 60% of supplied energy is used
and almost 40% is wasted!
That also means that somebody is
paying for this 40% wasted energy.
Wouldn’t it be nice to save this
money?

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Capacitive loads
And here is the good
news. The capacitive loads
cause the current to lead the
voltage. Compare the
previous slide. Have you
noticed that capacitance
(capacitor) shifts current in
an opposite direction to
inductance (motor coil)?

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 Correcting Power Factor
Displacement Power Factor (DPF) correction
• This means that the inductive “lagging” DPF

PF correction
produced by motors windings can be “balanced”
with “leading” capacitance. So if we add capacitors
to these systems we will correct (shift) the DPF ore
ef

Q before
bringing it closer to 1 (100% effective system), and Sb
therefore reduce the electric bill. This technique is
r
known as Power Factor correction. S afte

Q after
• It is done by installing capacitor banks or
automatic power factor correction units
• Overcorrection will have detrimental effect on
working power as well. Working power (W)

TRUE Power Factor correction

• True Power Factor consists of DPF and harmonic
distortion. The harmonic distortion component is
more difficult to correct since it requires removing
harmonics from the system. This process usually
requires specialized equipment like harmonic
filters and K rated transformers.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Quiz
Why do two different instruments playing the same
note sound different? Why do flutes and violins
sound different? If the sound is a vibration of air
molecules, and by playing the same note these
instruments vibrate air molecules with the exact
same frequency, why do they sound different?

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Hermann Helmholtz
He discovered that musical instruments produce entire array
of sounds (frequencies). But all of these sounds
(frequencies) are multiples of the single fundamental
frequency.

So if we use 60Hz as fundamental frequency, instruments will

generate second harmonic (60Hz*2 = 120 Hz), third
harmonic (60Hz 3 = 180Hz) and so on…The combination
of individual harmonics for each instrument varies, and
that is a reason the instruments playing the same note
sound different.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Fourier analysis
• Also in 19th century, French mathematician, Jean Baptiste
Joseph Fourier proved, in essence, any waveform could be
decomposed or separated into sinusoids (sine waves) of different
frequency (harmonics).
• All these sine waves would sum up to the original waveform.
• The Fourier Transform identifies or distinguishes the different
frequency sinusoids and their respective amplitudes.

In other words, no matter how distorted a sine wave is, it can be broken down into
a fundamental frequency and individual harmonics. If you perform harmonic
analysis with power quality instrument, the distorted sine wave is going to be
broken down into individual harmonics (sine waves), and individual
harmonics can be linked to a specific malfunction of an electrical system. The
harmonic analysis is performed separately for voltage and current, and for
each phase of three-phase system

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Harmonic analysis
• In other words, no matter how distorted a sine wave is, it can be
broken down into a fundamental frequency and individual harmonics.
• If you perform harmonic analysis with power quality instrument, the
distorted sine wave is going to be broken down into individual
harmonics (sine waves), and individual harmonics can be linked to a
specific malfunction of an electrical system.
• The harmonic analysis is performed separately for voltage and
current, and for each phase of three-phase system

= +

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Harmonics Readings

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Sine wave distortion – Harmonics
Distortion?
Distortion of the sine waves may cause a lot of problems, like:
• Deceiving “Average” sensing meters!
• Failed Power Factor Correction Capacitors
• Blown Fuses (no apparent fault)
• Misfiring of AC and DC Drives
• Overheated Transformers
• Tripped Circuit Breakers
• Overheated Conductors
• Voltage distortion
• Overheated conductors
• High neutral currents
• High neutral to ground voltages
• Increased system losses (heat)
• Rotating and electronic equipment failures
• Reduced power factor due to THD

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Third harmonics example

Safety problem!

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Dealing with harmonics
Being able to detect harmonics is a powerful
weapon for electrical engineers and technicians.
They can troubleshoot systems, and provide
preventive maintenance to assure system safety,
efficiency and uninterrupted service.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Before we go to perform some hands on training, lets
learn about product safety…

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Electrical Shock

Current Effect on Body

in mA
8 or less Sensation of shock but probably not
painful

8 to 15 Painful shock

15 to 20 Painful shock, may be frozen or

locked to point of electric contact
until circuit is de-energized

Over 20 Causes severe muscular contractions,

paralysis of breathing, heart
convulsions

*Effects vary depending on time, path, amount of exposure and

condition of body.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Product Safety

Rule #1: After work go home

Rule #2: Use safe meters to accomplish Rule #1

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Safety standards summary
Overvoltage protection (IEC 61010)
– CAT IV – Three-phase at
utility connection, any
outdoors conductors (under
1000V).
– CAT III – Three-phase
distribution (under 1000V),
including single-phase
commercial lighting and
distribution panels.
– CAT II – Single-phase
receptacle connected loads.
– CAT I – Electronics
– Second part of specification, is
the maximum voltage the unit
is able to measure.

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

 Quiz
You are just about to check voltage on this
480V CAT III main panel shown on the
picture. You have two meters to choose
from, rated at:

3. CAT I 1000V
4. CAT III 600V

Which meter will be safer for the job?

Answer: CAT III 600V

Properly working electrical system rated at CAT III
600V can produce up to 6KV voltage
impulse! Meters rated to CAT III 600V will
safely absorb or otherwise deal with such
impulse.

The CAT I 1000V, even though is rated with

higher voltage, may “blow up” in user’s
hands in CAT III environment!
2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar
CAT overvoltage limits

Examples of the CAT ratings vs the overvoltage (transients), which can be

generated by PROPELY working electrical system due to switching
equipment, loads etc…:

Category Rating Overvoltage

CAT IV 600V CAT 8kV
III 600 V CAT II 6kV
600V 4kV

Most of applications for Electrical Maintenance and General Electrical

Contractors require at least
CAT III 600V

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Over-Voltage Safety Standards
When is 1000V less than 600V?
– CAT III-1000V meter has better protection than a
CAT III-600V meter
– CAT I-1000V meter IS NOT "safer" than a CAT
III-600V meter

When it comes to transient protection, the CAT III-600V meter

passes a test against a transient with much more energy than
the CAT I -1000V meter

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

CAT Ratings

Category ratings are

marked next to the input
terminals of the meter

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar

Prefixes

2008 Basics Of Electricity Seminar