Job Design

▶ Specifying the tasks that constitute a job for an individual or a

group
1. Job specialization
2. Job expansion
3. Psychological components
4. Self-directed teams
5. Motivation and incentive systems
Labor Specialization
• The division of labor into unique tasks
• First suggested by Adam Smith in 1776
1. Development of dexterity
2. Less loss of time
3. Development of specialized tools
• Later Charles Babbage (1832) added another
consideration
4. Wages exactly fit the required skill required
Job Expansion
▶ Adding more variety to jobs
▶ Intended to reduce boredom associated with
labor specialization
▶ Job enlargement
▶ Job rotation
▶ Job enrichment
▶ Employee empowerment
 Job Enlargement
Figure 10.2
Enriched job
Planning
(Participate in a cross-
function quality
improvement team)

Enlarged job
Task #3 Present job Task #2
(Lock printed circuit (Manually insert and (Adhere labels
board into fixture for solder six resistors) to printed circuit
next operation) board)

Control
(Test circuits after
assembly)
Psychological Components of
Job Design
Human resource strategy requires
consideration of the psychological
components
of job design
Hawthorne Studies
► They studied light levels, but discovered
productivity improvement was independent from
lighting levels
► Introduced psychology into the workplace

► The workplace social system and distinct roles

played by individuals may be more important

than physical factors
► Individual differences may be dominant in job

expectation and contribution

Core Job Characteristics
Jobs should include the following
characteristics

1. Skill variety
2. Job identity
3. Job significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
Self-Directed Teams
▶ Group of empowered individuals working
together to reach a common goal
▶ May be organized for long-term or
short-term objectives
▶ Effective because
▶ Provide employee empowerment
▶ Ensure core job characteristics
▶ Meet individual psychological needs
Self-Directed Teams
To maximize effectiveness, managers should
► Ensure those who have legitimate
contributions are on the team
► Provide management support
► Ensure the necessary training
► Endorse clear objectives and goals
► Financial and non-financial rewards
► Supervisors must release control
Job Design Continuum
Self-directed
Figure 10.3 teams

Empowerment

Self-direction
Enrichment

Enlargement

Specialization

Job expansion
Benefits of Teams and Expanded Job Designs
▶ Improved quality of work life
▶ Improved job satisfaction
▶ Increased motivation
▶ Allows employees to accept more
responsibility
▶ Improved productivity and quality
▶ Reduced turnover and absenteeism
Limitations of Job Expansion

1. Higher capital cost

2. Individuals may prefer simple jobs
3. Higher wage rates for greater skills
4. Smaller labor pool
5. Higher training costs
Limitations of Job Expansion

1. Higher capital cost

2. Individuals may prefer simple jobs
3. Higher wages rates forAvegreater
rage Annual
skills Training Hours/
Employee
4. Smaller labor pool U.S. 7
5. Higher training costsSweden 170
Japan 200
Motivation and Incentive Systems
▶ Bonuses - cash or stock options
▶ Profit-sharing - profits for distribution to employees
▶ Gain sharing - rewards for improvements
▶ Incentive plans - typically based on production rates
▶ Knowledge-based systems - reward for knowledge or skills
Ergonomics and the Work Environment
▶ Ergonomics is the study of the interface
between man and machine
▶ Often called
human factors
▶ Operator input
to machines
Ergonomics and Work Methods
▶ Feedback to operators
▶ The work environment
▶ Illumination
▶ Noise
▶ Temperature
▶ Humidity
Recommended Levels of
Illumination

Figure 10.4a
Levels of Illumination
TASK CONDITION TYPE OF TASK ILLUMINATION TYPE OF
OR AREA LEVEL ILLUMINATION

Small detail, extreme Sewing, inspecting 100 Overhead ceiling

accuracy dark materials lights and desk lamp

Normal detail, Reading, parts 20-50 Overhead ceiling

prolonged periods assembly, general lights
office work

Good contrast, fairly Recreational facilities 5-10 Overhead ceiling

large objects lights

Large objects Restaurants, 2-5 Overhead ceiling

stairways, lights
warehouses
Decibel Levels

Table 10.4b
Methods Analysis
• Focuses on how task is performed
• Used to analyze
1. Movement of individuals or material
• Flow diagrams and process charts
2. Activities of human and machine and crew activity
• Activity charts
3. Body movement
• Operations charts
Flow Diagram

Welding

From
Storage bins
press
mach. Paint
shop
Mach. 3 Mach. 4
Machine 1

Mach. 2

Figure 10.5 (a)

Flow Diagram

Machine 4 Welding
Machine 3
Paint
Machine 2 shop
Machine 1
From
press Storage
mach. bins

Figure 10.5 (b)

 Process
Chart

Figure 10.5 (c)

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 24

Activity Chart

Figure 10.6
 Operation Chart
Figure 10.7
Redesigning and Managing Process
Improvements (4 of 4)
• Implementing
• Avoid the following seven mistakes:
1. Not connecting with strategic issues
2. Not involving the right people in the right way
3. Not giving the Design Teams and Process Analysts a clear
charter, and then holding them accountable
4. Not being satisfied unless fundamental “reengineering”
changes are made
5. Not considering the impact on people
6. Not giving attention to implementation
7. Not creating an infrastructure for continuous process
improvement
Solved Problem 1 (1 of 3)
Create a flowchart for the following telephone-ordering process at a retail chain that specializes in
selling books and music CDs. It provides an ordering system via the telephone to its time-sensitive
customers besides its regular store sales.
The automated system greets customers, asks them to choose a tone or pulse phone, and routes
them accordingly.
The system checks to see whether customers have an existing account. They can wait for the service
representative to open a new account.
Customers choose between order options and are routed accordingly.
Customers can cancel the order. Finally, the system asks whether the customer has additional
requests; if not, the process terminates.
Solved Problem 1 (2 of 3)
Figure 2.16 Flowchart of Telephone Ordering Process
Solved Problem 1 (3 of 3)
Figure 2.16 [continued]
Solved Problem 2 (1 of 4)
An automobile service is having difficulty providing oil changes in the 29 minutes or
less mentioned in its advertising. You are to analyze the process of changing
automobile engine oil. The subject of the study is the service mechanic. The
process begins when the mechanic directs the customer’s arrival and ends when
the customer pays for the services.
Solved Problem 2 (2 of 4)
Figure 2.17 Process Chart for Changing Engine Oil
Solved Problem 2 (3 of 4)
Figure 2.17 [continued]
Solved Problem 2 (4 of 4)
The times add up to 28 minutes, which does not allow much
room for error if the 29-minute guarantee is to be met and the
mechanic travels a total of 420 feet.
Solved Problem 3
What improvement can you make in the process shown in Solved Problem 2?
a. Move Step 17 to Step 21. Customers should not have to wait while the
mechanic cleans the work area.
b. Store small inventories of frequently used filters in the pit. Steps 7 and 10
involve travel to and from the storeroom.
c. Use two mechanics. Steps 10, 12, 15, and 17 involve running up and down the
steps to the pit. Much of this travel could be eliminated.
Solved Problem 4 (1 of 4)
Vera Johnson and Merris Williams manufacture vanishing cream.
Their packaging process has four steps: (1) mix, (2) fill, (3) cap,
and (4) label. They have had the reported process failures
analyzed, which shows the following:

Defect Frequency
Lumps of unmixed product 7
Over- or underfilled jars 18
Jar lids did not seal 6
Labels rumpled or missing 29
Total 60

Draw a Pareto chart to identify the vital defects.

Solved Problem 4 (2 of 4)
Defective labels account for 48.33 percent of the total number of
defects:
29
 100%  48.33%
60
Improperly filled jars account for 30 percent of the total number
of defects:
18
 100%  30.00%
60
The cumulative percent for the two most frequent defects is
48.33%  30.00  78.33%
Solved Problem 4 (3 of 4)
7
Lumps represent  100% = 11.67% of defects;
60

the cumulative percentage is

78.33% + 11.67% = 90.00%

6
Defective seals represent  100% = 10% of defects;
60

the cumulative percentage is

10% + 90% = 100.00%
Solved Problem 4 (4 of 4)
Figure 2.18 Pareto Chart
Time Studies
▶ Involves timing a sample of a worker’s
performance and using it to set a standard
▶ Requires trained and experienced observers
▶ Cannot be set before the work is performed
Time Studies

1. Define the task to be studied

2. Divide the task into precise elements
3. Decide how many times to measure
the task
4. Time and record element times and
rating of performance
Time Studies
5. Compute average observed time
Sum of the times recorded to
Average perform each element
observed =
time Number of observations

6. Determine performance rating and

normal time
Average Performance
Normal time = observed x
rating factor
time
Time Studies

7. Add the normal times for each

element to develop the total normal
time for the task
8. Compute the standard time

Total normal time

Standard time =
1 - Allowance factor
Rest Allowances
▶ Personal time allowance
▶ 4% - 7% of total time for use of restroom, water
fountain, etc.
▶ Delay allowance
▶ Based upon actual delays that occur
▶ Fatigue allowance
▶ Based on our knowledge of human energy
expenditure
Rest Allowances
Allowance Factors (in percentage) for
TABLE 10.1 Various Classes of Work
1. Constant allowances:
(A) Personal allowance …………………………………….. 5
(B) Basic fatigue allowance ………………………………... 4
2. Variable allowances:
(A) Standing allowance …………………………………….. 2
(B) Abnormal position
(i) Awkward (bending) …………………………………. 2
(ii) Very awkward (lying, stretching) ………………….. 7
Rest Allowances
Allowance Factors (in percentage) for
TABLE 10.1 Various Classes of Work
(C) Use of force or muscular energy in lifting, pulling, pushing
Weight lifted (pounds)
20 ……………………………………………………….. 3
40 ……………………………….................................. 9
60 ………………………………………………………. 17
Rest Allowances
Allowance Factors (in percentage) for
TABLE 10.1 Various Classes of Work
(D) Bad light
(i) Well below recommended ………………………… 2
(ii) Quite inadequate …………………………………… 5
(E) Noise level:
(i) Intermittent–loud …………………………..………. 2
(ii) Intermittent–very loud or high pitched ..…………. 5
 Time Study Example 1
Average observed time = 4.0 minutes
Worker rating = 85%
Allowance factor = 13%

Normal time = (Average observed time) x (Rating factor)

= (4.0)(.85)
= 3.4 minutes

Normal time 3.4 3.4

Standard time = = =
1 - Allowance factor 1 - .13 .87
= 3.9 minutes

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 48

 Time Study Example 2
Allowance factor = 15%
OBSERVATIONS (MIN)
PERFORMANCE
JOB ELEMENT 1 2 3 4 5 RATING

(A) Compose and type letter 8 10 9 21* 11 120%

(B) Type envelope address 2 3 2 1 3 105%
(C) Stuff, stamp, and seal envelopes 2 1 5* 2 1 110%

1. Delete unusual or nonrecurring observations (marked with *)

2. Compute average times for each element
Average time for A = (8 + 10 + 9 + 11)/4 = 9.5 minutes
Average time for B = (2 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 3)/5 = 2.2 minutes
Average time for C = (2 + 1 + 2 + 1)/4 = 1.5 minutes
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 49
 Time Study Example 2
3. Compute the normal time for each element

Normal time = (Average observed time) x (Rating)

Normal time for A = (9.5)(1.2) = 11.4 minutes

Normal time for B = (2.2)(1.05) = 2.31 minutes
Normal time for C = (1.5)(1.10) = 1.65 minutes

4. Add the normal times to find the total normal time

Total normal time = 11.40 + 2.31 + 1.65

= 15.36 minutes

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 50

 Time Study Example 2
5. Compute the standard time for the job

Total normal time

Standard time =
1 - Allowance factor
15.36
= = 18.07 minutes
1 - .15

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 51

 Determine Sample Size

1. How accurate we want to be

2. The desired level of confidence
3. How much variation exists within the
job elements

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 52

 Determine Sample Size

Required sample size =

where h = accuracy level (acceptable error)

desired in percent of the job element expressed as a
decimal
z = number of standard deviations required
for the desired level of confidence
s = standard deviation of the initial sample
= mean of the initial sample
n = required sample size

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 53

 Determine Sample Size
TABLE 10.2
Common z-Values
Required sample size =
z-VALUE
(STANDARD
DEVIATION
where h = accuracy level (acceptable error) FOR
REQUIRED
desired in percent of the jobDESIRED
element expressedDESIRED as aLEVEL
decimal CONFIDENCE (%) OF CONFIDENCE)
z = number of standard
90.0 deviations1.65required
for the desired level of confidence
s = 95.0
standard deviation of the initial1.95
sample
= mean of the 95.45
initial sample 2.00
n = required sample
99.0 size 2.58
99.73 3.00

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 54

 Time Study Example 3
Desired accuracy with 5%
Confidence level = 95%
Sample standard deviation = 1.0
Sample mean = 3.00
h = .05 = 3.00 s = 1.0
z = 1.96 (from Table S10.1 or Appendix I)

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 55

 Time Study Example 3
Variations

If desired accuracy h is expressed as an absolute

amount, substitute e for , where e is the absolute
amount of acceptable error

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 56

 Time Study Example 3
Variations
When the standard deviation s is not provided, it
must be computed

where

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 57

 Work Sampling
▶ Estimates percent of time a worker spends on various tasks
▶ Requires random observations to record worker activity
▶ Determines how employees allocate their time
▶ Can be used to set staffing levels, reassign duties, estimate
costs, and set delay allowances
Work Sampling
1. Take a preliminary sample to obtain
estimates of parameter values
2. Compute the sample size required
3. Prepare a schedule for random
observations at appropriate times
4. Observe and record worker activities
5. Determine how workers spend their
time
Work Sampling
Determining the sample size

where n = required sample size

z = standard normal deviate for desired
confidence level
p = estimated value of sample
proportion
h = acceptable error level in percent
(as a decimal)
Work Sampling Example
Estimates employees idle 25% of the time
Sample should be accurate within ± 3%
Wants to have 95.45% confidence in the results

where n = required sample size

z = 2 for a 95.45% confidence
level
p = estimate of idle proportion =
25% = .25
h = acceptable error of 3% = .03
Work Sampling Example
NO. OF
OBSERVATIONS ACTIVITY
485 On the phone or meeting with a welfare client
126 Idle
62 Personal time
23 Discussions with supervisor
137 Filing, meeting, and computer data entry
833

All but idle and personal time are work related

Percentage idle time = (126 + 62)/833 = 22.6%
Since this is less than the target value of 25%, the
workload needs to be adjusted
 Work Sampling Time Studies
Salespeople

Sales in Travel
person 20%
20%
Telephone
sales Paperwork
12% 17%
Lunch and
personal
10%
Telephone
within firm Meetings
13% and other
8%

Figure 10.10
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 63
 Work Sampling Time Studies
Startup/exercise
Assembly-Line 3%
Employees
Breaks and lunch
10%

Dead time
between tasks
13%
Productive Unscheduled tasks
work and downtime
67% 4%
Cleanup
3%

Figure 10.10
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 - 64
Work Sampling
▶ Advantages of work sampling
▶ Less expensive than time study
▶ Observers need little training
▶ Studies can be delayed or interrupted with little
impact on results
▶ Worker has little chance to affect results
▶ Less intrusive
Work Sampling
▶ Disadvantages of work sampling
▶ Does not divide work elements as completely as
time study
▶ Can yield biased results if observer does not follow
random pattern
▶ Less accurate, especially when
job element times are short