DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
1 Identify in diagrams and images the main
organs of the digestive system, limited to:
(a) alimentary canal: mouth, oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine (duodenum and
ileum) and large intestine (colon, rectum,
anus)
(b) associated organs: salivary glands,
pancreas,Liver and gallbladder
2. Describe the functions of the organs of the
digestive system listed in relation to:
(a) ingestion – the taking of substances, e.g.
food and drink, into the body
(b) digestion – the breakdown of food
(c) absorption – the movement of nutrients
from the intestines into the blood
(d) assimilation – uptake and use of nutrients
by cells
(e) egestion – the removal of undigested food
from the body as faeces
The Stages of Food Breakdown
Food taken into the body goes through 5 different stages during its passage through the
alimentary canal (the gut).
Ingestion is the taking of substances such as food and drink into the body through the
mouth.
Digestion – the breakdown of food
Absorption is the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the
intestine into the blood.
Assimilation is the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body
where they are used, becoming part of the cells.
Egestion is the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces,
through the anus.
The Alimentary Canal
The alimentary canal is a long tube which runs from the mouth to the anus.

The wall of the alimentary canal contains muscles, which contract and relax to make food
move along.

This movement is called peristalsis.

Special muscles can close the tube completely in certain places. They are called sphincter
muscles.

To help food slide easily through the alimentary canal, it is lubricated with mucus.
Region of Function
alimentary canal

mouth ingestion of food; mechanical digestion by

teeth; chemical digestion of starch by
amylase; formation of a bolus for swallowing
salivary glands saliva contains amylase for
chemical digestion
of starch in food; also liquid to lubricate food
and
make small pieces stick together

oesophagus (gullet) transfers food from the mouth to the

stomach, by peristalsis

stomach produces gastric juice containing pepsin, for

chemical digestion of protein; also
hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria; peristalsis
churns food up into a liquid.
Region of Alimentary Canal Function

duodenum first part of the small intestine; receives

pancreatic juice for chemical digestion of
proteins, fats and starch as well as
neutralising the acid from the stomach;
receives bile to emulsify fats (a form
of physical digestion

ileum second part of the small intestine; enzymes

in the epithelial lining carry out chemical
digestion of maltose and peptides; very long
and has villi for absorption of digested food
molecules

Pancreas pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the

duodenum via pancreatic duct for chemical
digestion of proteins, fats and starch.
Region of the Alimentary Canal Function

liver makes bile, containing salts to emulsify fats

(physical digestion); assimilation of digested
food such as glucose; deamination of excess
amino acids

Gall bladder stores bile, made in the liver, to be secreted

into the duodenum via the bile duct.

colon first part of the large intestine; absorption of

water from undigested food; absorption of
bile salts to pass back to the liver

rectum second part of the large intestine; stores

faeces

anus egestion of faeces

Physical Digestion
Physical digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change
to the food molecules.
physical digestion increases the surface area of food for the action of enzymes in chemical
digestion.

It is mainly carried out by the chewing action of the teeth, the churning action of the
stomach and the emulsification of fats by bile in the duodenum
TYPES OF TEETH
Teeth are held firmly in the bone of the jaw
They are used for chewing to increase the surface area of the food so that it can be
exposed to saliva and other digestive juices and broken down more quickly
The differing shapes and sizes of teeth enable them to perform slightly different
functions:
Incisors – chisel-shaped for biting and cutting
Canines – pointed for tearing, holding and biting
Premolars and molars – larger, flat surfaces with ridges at the edges for chewing
and grinding up food
Types of Teeth
Tooth Structure
Tooth Structure

The part of a tooth that is visible above the gum line is called the crown.
The gum is tissue that overlays the jaws. The rest, embedded in the jaw
bone, is called the root.
The surface of the crown is covered by a very hard layer of enamel.
This layer is replaced by cement in the root, which enables the tooth to
grip to its bony socket in the jaw.
Below the enamel is a layer of dentine. Dentine is softer than enamel.
Inside the dentine is a pulp cavity, containing nerves and blood vessels.
These enter the tooth through a small hole at the base of the root.
 Dental decay (dental caries)
Tooth decay and gum disease are both caused by bacteria

Many bacteria live in the mouth and most are harmless, however some form a sticky film with
saliva, called plaque, which coats teeth and the areas where they attach to gums.

If sugar is left in the mouth after eating, bacteria in plaque will feed on it

They use it in respiration and turn it into acids

The acids gradually dissolve the enamel coating of the teeth, working its way into the dentine.
Dentine is softer than enamel and so dissolves more easily and quickly

This is tooth decay and if not dealt with, can cause painful infections and loss of teeth
Reducing the amount of sugar eaten can prevent tooth decay

Brushing teeth regularly removes the buildup of plaque that can cause gum disease and
removes the sugars in the mouth so bacteria cannot turn them into acids and cause tooth
decay

Teeth should be brushed with a fluoride toothpaste as this helps to strengthen enamel and
reduce damage from acids

Regular visits to a dentist ensures that any signs of gum disease or tooth decay can be
dealt with promptly
2-Physical Digestion
An example of physical digestion is the peristaltic action of muscles in the wall of the
stomach.

These muscles alternately contract and relax, churning and squeezing the food in the
stomach and mixing it with gastric juice, turning the mixture into a creamy liquid called
chyme.

This action gives the food a greater surface area so that it can be digested more efficiently.
3-Physical Digestion
Bile contains bile salts, which act on fats rather like a detergent.
The bile salts emulsify the fats. That is, they break them up into small droplets with a large
surface area, which are more efficiently digested by lipase.
Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion is the break down of large insoluble molecules into small soluble
molecules.

Chemical digestion is controlled by enzymes which are produced in different areas of the
digestive system

There are three main types of digestive enzymes – carbohydrases, proteases and lipases
Digestion of starch
Amylases are produced in the mouth and the pancreas (secreted into the duodenum)

Amylases digest starch into smaller sugars.

Digestion of starch
Amylase is secreted into the alimentary canal in the mouth and the duodenum (from the
pancreas) and digests starch to maltose (a disaccharide)

Maltose is digested by the enzyme maltase into glucose on the membranes of the
epithelium lining the small intestine
Protein Digestion
Proteases are a group of enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids in the
stomach and small intestine (with the enzymes in the small intestine having been produced
in the pancreas).
Protein Digestion
Protein digestion takes place in the stomach and duodenum with two main enzymes
produced:

Pepsin is produced in the stomach

Trypsin is produced in the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum

Lipases

Lipase enzymes are produced in the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum

They digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

The Role of Hydrochloric Acid
The stomach produces several fluids which together are known as gastric juice

One of the fluids produced is hydrochloric acid.

The low pH kills bacteria in food that we have ingested as it denatures the enzymes in
their cells, meaning they cannot carry out any cell reactions to maintain life

Pepsin, produced in the stomach, is an example of an enzyme which has a very low
optimum pH – around pH 2

The hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach ensures that conditions in the stomach
remain within the optimum range for pepsin to work at its fastest rate
Bile
Bile
Bile is a green, watery fluid made in the liver, stored in the gallbladder and delivered to
the duodenum by the bile duct.

Bile also contains bile salts, which act on fats rather like a detergent. The bile salts
emulsify the fats.

Bile is slightly alkaline as it contains sodium hydrogen carbonate and, along with
pancreatic juice, has the function of neutralising the acidic mixture of food and gastric
juices as it enters the duodenum.
Absorption
Absorption is the movement of nutrients from the intestines into the blood.

Water is absorbed in both the small intestine and the colon, but most absorption of water
also happens in the small intestine.

Absorption takes place in the second section of the small intestine, the ileum
Absorption
The ileum is adapted for absorption as it is very long and has a highly folded surface with
millions of villi (tiny, finger like projections).

These adaptations massively increase the surface area of the ileum, allowing absorption to
take place faster and more efficiently.
Structure of a Villus
Structure and Adaptation of the Villus
Microvilli on the surface of the villus further increase surface area for faster absorption of
nutrients.

Wall of villus is one cell thick meaning that there is only a short distance for absorption to
happen by diffusion and active transport.

Well supplied with a network of blood capillaries that transport glucose and amino acids
away from the small intestine in the blood.

Lacteal runs through the centre of the villus to transport fatty acids and glycerol away
from the small intestine in the lymph.